This study examined adaptive instruction in the classroom from teachers’ perspectives in the Jirapa Municipality of Ghana. A concurrent mixed-methods design was adopted. Cluster and simple random sampling techniques were employed to select a sample size of 148 teachers for the study. Questionnaires and observation protocols were used to collect data. The findings revealed that diverse learners’ needs existed in the classroom. Therefore, teachers need to apply adaptive instruction in their teaching and learning processes. It was revealed that when teachers use adaptive instruction, learners achieve desirable learning outcomes, including lifelong learning through behavioral changes, enhanced learning preferences, sound receptive and retentive memory, and sustained interest in learning. Therefore, teachers should adapt their instruction to meet the diverse needs of learners.
adaptive instructionclassroomeducationlearningteachingThe author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.section-at-acceptanceSpecial Educational NeedsIntroduction
Public schools are often confronted with the problem of providing quality education for all learners. This is because of the daunting challenge of teaching all learners to understand. Headteachers and teachers have to respond to increasing learner variation in the classroom (Dumont and Ready, 2023). This, in the opinion of Matsuyama et al. (2019), requires teachers to focus mainly on transmitting knowledge, values, principles, and concepts through the active participation of all learners in the classroom. Classroom instruction that does not emphasize learners’ needs and interests should not be encouraged (Bernard et al., 2019). Dumont and Ready’s (2023) study found that learners’ places of birth, family orientation, religious background, and gender differences affect learning; hence, teachers have to navigate these differences to ensure equal learning opportunities. Randi and Corn (2015) acknowledged that learner variation on the teaching and learning spectrum has existed over a long period. Therefore, teachers are in a tussle selecting meaningful instructional strategies. This sentiment is echoed in the studies by Sarpong (2024), Matei and Gogu (2017), and Narh (2015), which indicate that some learners are sluggish and need encouragement, whereas others perform tasks independently when given greater freedom. This suggests that teaching and learning should be continually adapted to meet the diverse needs of learners in the classroom.
Furthermore, teachers do not determine the number of learners in a classroom, especially in public schools. Government policies have led to a large influx of children, resulting in many being funneled into schools and causing class sizes to increase tremendously (Fullan, 2023). Large class sizes are common in the majority of public schools (Wang and Calvano, 2022; Alhassan and Susan, 2017). Therefore, many classrooms are populated by diverse learners from different cultural, geographical, religious, and ethnic backgrounds (Curado, 2017; Elmohamady, 2017). Teachers in these classrooms face the challenge of adapting instruction to meet the learning needs of all learners in the classroom.
Adaptive instruction refers to strategies that enhance teachers’ capacity to teach in ways that enable all learners in the classroom to benefit from instruction. Teachers often adopt a one-size-fits-all classroom teaching approach (Jahan et al., 2017) that disconnects their knowledge from the adaptive instruction they implement in classrooms. Furthermore, many studies of adaptive instruction are concentrated in primary schools (Alhassan and Abosi, 2014; Narh, 2015) to the neglect of junior high schools, particularly in Northern Ghana, where this study was conducted.
These gaps necessitate a study of adaptive instruction in the classroom from the perspective of junior high school teachers in the Jirapa Municipality of the Upper West Region of Ghana. The study addressed the following specific research questions:
a What diverse learners’ needs call for the deployment of adaptive instruction in junior high schools in the Jirapa Municipality?
b What are the perceived outcomes of implementing adaptive instruction in the classroom?
Diverse learners’ needs that call for the deployment of adaptive instruction in classrooms
Adaptive instruction may be effective when it begins with the identification of learners’ needs in the classroom (Newman, 2023). This implies that the pace and style at which each learner absorbs essential learning in the classroom are unique and not comparable. One key variable is cultural heterogeneity. Gerth (2022) noted that this aspect is observable in the majority of classrooms, while Taylor (2017) bemoaned that cultural diversity is often not adequately reflected in school curricula. Therefore, maintaining a one-size-fits-all instructional strategy in a culturally heterogeneous classroom may be extremely detrimental to learners. Gabaldón-Estevan (2020) further affirmed that public schools comprise learners from diverse cultural orientations, such that a classroom without cultural differences would be considered a barren learning environment.
Another critical need is the variation in learners’ prior knowledge. Teachers must deliberately select teaching content to meet the needs of all learners in the classroom (Gabaldón-Estevan, 2020). As Sottilare (2024) argued, learners with superior prior knowledge may require less supportive adaptive instructional designs to accomplish learning tasks than those with limited prior knowledge. This suggests that teachers must align their teaching strategies so that learners less familiar with the content are not left behind. To that end, the (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2018) noted that these learner variations present an opportunity for teachers to investigate and understand each learner’s unique needs.
Gender differences represent a learner need that calls for adaptive instruction. Hou (2019) observed that teachers need to consider these differences so that adaptations yield positive learning outcomes. Research in Pakistan found that poorly managed gender differences in education have a negative impact, as male family members are often given better learning opportunities than female counterparts (Chaudhry and Rahman, 2009). Similarly, in the Ghanaian context, female learners appear to have less access to learning opportunities compared with male learners (Nabiebakye et al., 2022). Therefore, the use of adaptive instruction can eliminate these counterproductive practices in classroom teaching and learning.
Age differences in the classroom have long been acknowledged by Rodriguez and Astrid (2016). Tomlinson (2000) affirmed that in the majority of classrooms, some learners perform above their age level and others below, due to age and individual characteristics. Thus, teachers need to be mindful of learners’ age differences when facilitating instruction. However, Staddon (2020) contradicts this, arguing that age differences do not influence teaching and learning outcomes.
Learners have distinct learning styles, which are personal qualities that influence their ability to acquire information and interact in learning environments (Corbin, 2017). These styles represent the various ways individual learners acquire content. Whereas some learners grasp content quickly, others may be slower and need more examples (Sottilare, 2024; Bertram et al., 2021). Therefore, teachers need to incorporate individual learning styles when preparing lesson notes, exercises, and other teaching materials.
Ultimately, teaching adaptively means that teachers must continually consider how to ensure that all learners feel safe and supported (Westbroek et al., 2020). This entails personalizing learning, differentiating instruction, and creating an inclusive classroom environment in which all learners can thrive across all junior high schools in the Jirapa Municipality.
Outcomes of adaptive instruction in the classroom
Adaptive instruction is often hailed as a potential game-changer and a panacea for teaching challenges, primarily because it creates learner-centered classrooms (Shome, 2021; Ginting et al., 2024). This is achieved by tailoring instruction to diverse learner needs. If implemented appropriately, this approach may help learners achieve lifelong learning, aligning with the aim of Sustainable Development Goal 4 [United Nations (UN), 2016]. Del Mundo (2022) argued that 21st-century teaching should focus on enhancing the transfer of knowledge and skills, suggesting that adaptive instruction in the Jirapa Municipality would yield a holistic approach that benefits every learner.
One specific outcome is an enhanced learning preference. Zhang et al. (2021) explained that this preference is evident in learners’ awareness of their individual learning avenues, allowing teachers to adjust teaching styles and resources to align with these preferences. This is paramount, as a mismatch can limit learner interest. MaaliwIII (2020) asserted that adaptive instruction allows teachers to identify each learner’s style and tailor instruction accordingly, providing differentiated support that meets individual needs.
Another outcome is increased learner attention and motivation. Loughland (2019) noted that adaptive instruction enables teachers to increase learners’ attention spans. This is because it responds to learners’ interests; learners tend to be more motivated and participate actively, which keeps them attentive and facilitates understanding.
Furthermore, adaptive instruction enhances assessment and feedback. It enables the teacher to assess learners at every point and to prepare better to respond to the specific needs identified (Tetzlaff et al., 2021). Through this, the teacher can help all learners leverage their strengths, address their weaknesses, and make inquiries to support what works best for each individual (Doyle, 2023). Specifically, formative assessment can meet learners’ needs when the teacher is attuned to the learning environment, knowledge, and pace (Leenknecht et al., 2021). This assessment allows the teacher to understand learners’ goals and assist each learner individually. In the context of junior high schools in the Jirapa Municipality, formative assessment within adaptive instruction would enable teachers to determine when certain topics need re-teaching.
Theoretical underpinning
The study is grounded in Tomlinson, (2000) Differentiated Instruction (DI) theory, which provides a framework for understanding adaptive instruction. DI theory reflects a well-known philosophy of teaching and learning in the pedagogical literature (Pozas et al., 2019; Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2018; Rasheed and Wahid, 2018) and aligns with adaptive instruction, advocating responsive teaching that meets the diverse needs of learners in classrooms. The Differentiated Instruction Theory originated from the constructivist perspective (Bernard et al., 2019; Taylor, 2017). Tomlinson (2003, 2000) drew on these early theorists and proposed the Differentiated Instruction Theory, a responsive teaching and learning paradigm that adjusts content, process, and product for each learner in the classroom.
Differentiated Instruction according to Tomlinson (2000).
Refers to the efforts of teachers to respond to the variance among learners in the classroom. Whenever a teacher reaches out to an individual or a small group and varies instruction to create the best possible learning experience, the teacher is differentiating instruction. (p.1).
Differentiated Instruction Theory, a responsive teaching and learning paradigm, adjusts content, process, and product for each learner in the classroom. Thus, the variation in intellectual, physical, emotional, and moral development creates diverse needs, interests, readiness, and modes of learning among learners in the classroom. As a result, teachers’ instruction must address these differences among learners. Teachers’ instruction in imparting knowledge must match the variations in learners (Sun et al., 2024; Westbroek et al., 2020; Rasheed and Wahid, 2018; Tomlinson, 2003). Teachers’ instruction that mirrors these variations in learners aligns with differentiated instructional theory. The theory is based on the premise that classroom teaching and learning should be adjusted with respect to content, process, and product for each learner (Rasheed and Wahid, 2018).
Materials and methods
This study is guided by a pragmatic perspective. Pragmatism, as articulated by Peirce, James, Mead, and Dewey, as well as by Murphy, Patton, and Rorty (Kaushik and Walsh, 2019; Creswell and Creswell, 2018), is a philosophical worldview that arises from actions, situations, and consequences rather than antecedent conditions. The pragmatic paradigm aligns with mixed-methods research because both accommodate a multiplicity of models (Ghiara, 2020). May and Perry (2022) maintained that the pragmatist study focuses mainly on the research problem in social science research. Furthermore, Creswell and Creswell (2018) are of the view that the philosophical underpinnings for pragmatist researchers include the following:
1 The researcher is not bound to any single system of philosophy or reality.
2 The researcher has freedom of choice.
3 The researcher does not view the world as an absolute unity.
4 Thus, for the mixed-methods researcher, pragmatism opens the door to multiple methods, different worldviews, and different assumptions, as well as different forms of data collection and analysis.
Therefore, the philosophical underpinning of this study is anchored in the pragmatist point of view, which allows researchers to choose the methods, techniques, and procedures of research that best meet the needs and purposes of the study. Thus, the study employed multiple approaches to collecting and analyzing data rather than relying solely on a quantitative or qualitative approach.
The study employed a concurrent mixed-methods design, combining quantitative survey data with qualitative observations. The population of the study included all teachers in junior high schools in the Jirapa Municipality. To determine the sample size, a predetermined population and its corresponding sample size table developed by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) were used. A population of 240 requires a sample of 148 (Krejcie and Morgan, 1970), which provided the scientific basis for selecting 148 teachers for the study. Cluster sampling was used in the study by dividing the Jirapa Municipality into circuits, where each circuit became a cluster. Furthermore, each circuit was further divided into junior high schools. Subsequently, simple random sampling was used to select four junior high schools in each circuit to be included in the study. Therefore, a total of 40 junior high schools were included in the study. A total of 12 junior high schools randomly were selected for the study and had exactly 3 trained teachers each, who were chosen for the study. An additional 4 trained teachers from each of the 28 remaining junior high schools were selected via simple random sampling using a lottery method. Thus, for any school that has more than four teachers, a corresponding number of pieces of paper were marked, four with ‘yes’ and the rest ‘no.’ These were placed in a box for the teachers to pick. Teachers who picked ‘yes’ were included in the study. Teachers who selected ‘no’ did not take part in the study. Using simple random sampling and cluster sampling techniques helped the researchers ensure the representativeness of the sample units, reduce biases, and minimize cost, particularly when not all sample units were included in the study (Amedahe and Gyimah, 2018). Questionnaires and observation protocols were used to collect primary data.
The questionnaires were divided into three sections, with Section ‘A’ focused on socio-demographic characteristics of teachers, including years of working experience and highest qualifications.
Section ‘B’ focused on teachers’ perceptions of diverse learners’ needs, using a 3-point Likert scale (exists, not sure, or does not exist), followed by open-ended questions to explain the basis for the chosen answer. The questions on diverse learners’ needs addressed cultural heterogeneity, varied relevant prior knowledge, gender differences, age differences, differences in learning styles, differences in cognitive abilities, varied emotional status, varied reception span, and memory retention.
Section C focused on the outcomes of adaptive instruction, assessed using a 3-point Likert scale (agree, undecided, or disagree) followed by an open-ended question to explain the basis for the chosen answer. The outcomes assessed were lifelong learning, enhanced learning preferences, sound receptive and retentive memory, formative assessment, and sustainability of learners’ interest. The 3-point Likert scale was used to develop the questionnaires because it has fewer options, which makes it less prone to misinterpretation and enhances the robustness of the findings (Boone and Boone, 2012; Krosnick and Presser, 2010).
An observation protocol was used to directly observe the 10 most experienced or long-serving teachers who had implemented adaptive instruction strategies in the classroom. The observation protocol was divided into three sections aligned with the study’s research questions. Section ‘A’ captured basic demographic information about the observation session, including the date, school name, and observation start and end times.
Section ‘B’ focused on the teacher’s ability to identify and acknowledge varied learner needs, which are key components of adaptive instruction. ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ criteria were ticked by the researchers, as observers, for each piece of evidence during the lesson, with a remark column for explanations of the basis for the tick. The variables observed in this section included respect for cultural heterogeneity in the class and whether the teacher’s use of inclusive examples or materials that reflect diverse cultural backgrounds creates opportunities for learners to share culturally relevant perspectives. Moreover, the researchers examined whether the lesson delivered was based on learners’ prior knowledge and whether the teacher explicitly activated or connected new content to what learners already knew, as demonstrated through questioning or brainstorming. Furthermore, the researchers observed gender awareness in class, that is, the ways the teacher ensures equitable participation and uses gender-neutral terms to avoid gender stereotyping. Similarly, the researchers observed ways the teacher incorporates age differences during task performance. The ways the teacher offers choices, adjusts task difficulty, or provides different levels of support account for varying levels of maturity or skill within the class. Moreover, the researchers observed that the teacher offers opportunities for learners to learn according to their own preferences. The teacher incorporates varied activities (e.g., concrete, visual, auditory, and kinesthetic experiences) that provide learners with choices for easy understanding of the content delivered in the lesson. Finally, in this section, the researchers observed how the teacher delivered the lesson that aligned with the learners’ cognitive abilities in the class. This requires the teacher to break the content into manageable activities, either for weak learners or to provide an advanced learning experience.
In section ‘C,’ the observation focused on the outcomes of adaptive instruction in the classroom. The variables observed included how learners demonstrate lifelong learning skills, such as showing curiosity, asking questions beyond the immediate task, or making connections to the real world of study. Moreover, the researchers observed that the teacher demonstrates the ability to enhance learners’ learning preferences; that is, the ways the teacher adjusts teaching methods or materials in response to the engagement of learners. Furthermore, the researchers observed ways learners demonstrate active listening and recall information during lessons. These checks assessed how well learners could accurately summarize, answer questions, or apply concepts discussed in the lesson. The researchers observed the teacher’s assessment techniques on learners as teaching and learning were ongoing. This allows the teacher to check learners’ understanding of content as the lesson progresses. Moreover, the researchers observed the teacher’s ability to sustain learners’ interest in class. This addressed how learners remain engaged, participate actively, and show sustained attention throughout the lesson. The researchers marked ‘yes’ when each of these outcomes was observed and ‘no’ when the practices were not observed in the lesson delivery. The remarks columns were included to explain the basis for the response chosen. To reduce researchers’ bias, the observed teachers were debriefed to cross-validate their own adaptive practices during lesson delivery. In so doing, adaptive instruction in the teaching process would have been brought to play. To improve validity, the instruments were reviewed by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Cape Coast, Ghana. These were experts in education, and their corrections were incorporated. To ensure the robustness of the analysis, we further conducted reliability checks on the Likert-scale items using 10 teachers who were not part of this study sample. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for measuring scale on diverse learners’ needs was 0.78, and for the outcomes of adaptive instruction, it was 0.81, indicating good internal consistency (Cronbach, 1975). Moreover, inter-rater reliability was established through dual coding for the classroom observation protocol. An introductory letter for ethical clearance was sought from the Jirapa Municipal Education Office. This was done before the field data was collected. Upon arrival at each school, the letter obtained from the Jirapa Municipal Education Office was used to seek permission from the respective headteachers, after which the researchers interacted with the teachers. The researchers used one month to administer the instruments. The respondents were assured of the necessary ethical issues, such as confidentiality, anonymity, and the right of participation. The researchers addressed potential social desirability bias by encouraging respondents to give truthful answers whenever possible. The researchers urged the respondents to be honest in their responses since anonymity and confidentiality of their responses were guaranteed throughout the entire research process. Hence, all 148 questionnaires were completed and returned. The data were checked and gleaned for errors.
The quantitative data were coded and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), which generated descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) used to summarize the distributions of responses. The qualitative data were analyzed thematically and used to support and triangulate the quantitative findings.
Results
The study presents the socio-demographic characteristics of teachers as shown in Table 1.
Socio-demographic characteristics of teachers.
Bio-variables
Response categories
Frequency
Percent
Total
148
100.0
Years of teaching experience
1–5 yrs.
38
25.7
6–10 yrs.
71
48.0
11–15 yrs.
28
18.9
16–20 yrs.
7
4.7
26–30 yrs.
4
2.7
Total
148
100.0
Academic qualification
SSS, O-level/ A-levels
9
6.1
Diploma in education
80
54.1
First degree
48
32.4
Master
11
7.4
Total
148
100.0
In Table 1, 25.7% of the teachers had 1–5 years of teaching experience. The majority of the teachers had 6–10 years of teaching experience, representing 48.0%, which may enable them to implement adaptive instruction to meet the diverse needs of learners. Regarding participants’ qualifications, 54.1% held a diploma, followed by 32.4% with a first-degree qualification, and the least (7.4%) had a master’s degree. These data indicate that the teachers had the requisite qualifications to implement adaptive instruction in order to address the diverse needs of learners in the classroom.
Research question 01: What diverse learners’ needs call for the deployment of adaptive instruction in junior high schools in the Jirapa Municipality?
The study presented findings on the diverse learners’ needs that call for the deployment of adaptive instruction, as shown in Table 2.
Diverse learners’ needs that call for adaptive instruction in the classroom.
Diverse learners’ needs
Perceived adaptive instruction
Observed adaptive instruction
Exist
Does not exist
Not sure
Total
Yes
No
Total
Cultural heterogeneity
135 (91.2)
8 (5.4)
5 (3.4)
148 (100)
4
6
10
Varied relevant prior knowledge
133 (89.9)
11 (7.4)
4 (2.7)
148 (100)
8
2
10
Gender differences
143 (96.6)
1 (0.7)
4 (2.7)
148 (100)
2
8
10
Age differences
130 (87.8)
15 (10.1)
3 (2.0)
148 (100)
7
3
10
Differences in learning styles
137 (92.6)
8 (5.4)
3 (2.0)
148 (100)
6
4
10
Different reception span and memory retention
141 (95.3)
4 (2.7)
3 (2.0)
148 (100)
8
2
10
Figures outside brackets are frequencies and those in brackets are percentages (%).
Table 2 presents both teachers’ perceptions and observational data on the need for diverse learners. From the table, 91.2% of the teachers perceived that cultural heterogeneity prevailed in most classrooms, although very few thought otherwise, that such a difference does not exist, 8 (5.4%); whilst some were ‘not sure,’ 5 (3.4%) of the assertion.
Regarding varied relevant prior knowledge, 133 (89.9%) of the teachers believed such learners existed and that they were far ahead of their colleagues in the classroom. Thus, such learners can recapitulate or link Relevant Prior Knowledge (RPK) to the current lesson. The study recognized the diverse needs of other learners, such as age, learning style, reception, and memory retention.
Therefore, the findings of the study reiterate the existence of diverse learners’ needs in the classrooms but are very pervasive on variables such as gender differences (96.6%), cultural heterogeneity (91.2%), and varied prior knowledge (89.9%) in the study area.
From the qualitative insight, teachers’ explanations revealed a deeper understanding:
learners with diverse backgrounds come with different beliefs…we try to promote every culture by allowing learners to cite examples from their cultures.
This supports the view that teachers were aware of learners’ diverse needs in the classrooms. Teachers’ adaptation in the classroom is often taken into account.
A teacher further explained as follows: learners’ behavior tells me that some learners’ ages are related to what they do in class. Older learners behave well, and vice versa.
Moreover, on varied relevant prior knowledge, according to a teacher:
learners’ prior knowledge plays a vital role in teaching and learning in the classroom… it makes learners perceive the concepts in class differently. For example, a learner who is exposed to computers will have an upper hand when learning ICT compared to those who do not have access to computers at home.
It is because of this assertion that most teachers always have relevant previous knowledge for their lesson notes preparation. They teach from what the learner already knows to the unknown.
Furthermore, regarding gender differences, a teacher said:
In the Jirapa Municipality, our schools are a mixture of both male and female learners in the classrooms… there is no single-sex school in the whole of the Municipality. As a teacher, one needs to take note of the specific challenges of the gender differences before addressing or dealing with them.
Therefore, teachers need to be gender responsive in their teaching since the classrooms are made up of both males and females.
The observation data revealed the following:
Regarding cultural heterogeneity, the observation protocol found that four (4) of the ten (10) selected teachers were observed applying the concept of adaptive instruction by allowing learners to cite examples that drew on their cultural orientations without restrictions. This means that although the teachers believed cultural heterogeneity prevailed in their classrooms, most (6) of them did not consider that during teaching, especially when citing examples in the classroom. This shows a perception-practice gap among the teachers in implementing adaptive instruction to address cultural heterogeneity in the classroom.
Given the teachers’ varied relevant prior knowledge, it was observed that eight of the teachers prepared their lessons and taught learners using demonstration concepts, which helped learners link their prior knowledge to the current lesson taught in the classroom.
Furthermore, the observation protocol revealed that most teachers considered learners’ needs with respect to age, their learning styles, receptive span, and variations in memory retention when teaching in the classroom. Notwithstanding this, a few teachers (eight of the teachers observed) could not do the same to meet other diverse learners, such as those of different genders. This was because some teachers did not consider using appropriate adaptive teaching strategies to support the diverse learners’ needs in the classroom. Hence, the study establishes a perception–practice gap among teachers in implementing adaptive instruction to address gender differences in classrooms within the Jirapa Municipality.
What are the perceived outcomes for using adaptive instruction in the classroom?
The study presented the findings on the perceived outcomes for using adaptive instruction in the classroom, as shown in Table 3.
Outcomes of using adaptive instruction to teach diverse learners in the classroom.
Outcomes
Responses to adaptive instruction
Observed response
Disagreed
Agreed
Undecided
Total
Yes
No
Total
Lifelong learning
33 (22.3)
99 (66.9)
16 (10.8)
148 (100)
5
5
10
Enhanced learning preferences
24 (16.2)
86 (58.1)
38 (25.7)
148 (100)
3
7
10
Sound receptive and retentive memory
19 (12.8)
108 (73.0)
21 (14.2)
148 (100)
8
2
10
Formative assessment
19 (12.8)
104 (70.3)
25 (16.9)
148 (100)
7
3
10
Sustainability of learners’ interest
27 (18.2)
97 (65.5)
24 (16.2)
148 (100)
9
1
10
Figures outside brackets are frequencies and those in brackets are percentages (%).
The results in Table 3 indicate that teachers believe using adaptive instruction has positive outcomes for diverse learners in the classroom. For example, 99 (66.9%) of teachers attested that adaptive instruction makes learners acquire lifelong learning; enhanced learning preferences, 86 (58.1%); sound receptive and retentive memory, 108 (73%); and formative assessment, 104 (70.3%). Thus, it was generally acknowledged that when teachers use adaptive instruction, it creates a learning environment where teaching and learning become flexible, democratic, and changeable based on the learner’s needs. This would eventually be carried through the learner’s life, where knowledge and interest remain forever boosted and sustainable, 97 (65.5%).
Moreover, from the qualitative explanations, a teacher said,
The use of adaptive instruction positively influences classroom teaching and learning because the learners reinforce their learning at their own pace.
On enhanced learning preferences, a teacher explained that.
‘Adaptive instruction allows the learners to learn the ways each wants to learn. The learners can identify the method that suits each of them uniquely. This promotes the unique understanding of each of the learners.
Another teacher explained:
Adaptive instruction makes learners have constant engagement and involvement in their learning process, either in the classroom teaching or with colleagues outside the classroom. The learners can retain and memorize what is being taught or learned. This facilitates sound receptive and retentive memory in the teaching and learning process.
On formative assessment, a teacher explained:
As teachers, when you employ adaptive instruction in your teaching process, you, the teacher, are able to assess your learners appropriately as the teaching and learning are ongoing.
Another teacher explained as follows:
The use of adaptive instruction affords the teacher to make the necessary but appropriate adjustments in the delivery of content in the classroom for easy understanding of the concepts by learners in the classroom.
A teacher had this to say:
When learners are exposed to various learning strategies, they tend to choose what they like best. In such a case, it means learners have their individual learning preferences that work best for them based on their respective uniqueness, and teachers need to recognize that in their teaching.
Similarly, these findings were corroborated by observational data on the outcomes of adaptive instruction in the classroom. For example, it was observed that the teaching methods of some teachers promote lifelong learning among students. Teachers using adaptive strategies saw greater student engagement (9 of 10 cases). As a result, learners were able to demonstrate a solid understanding of the concepts taught with little assistance in the classroom.
The observation protocol established that adaptive instruction sustains learners’ interest. Learners observed could link their previous knowledge to the current lesson being taught in the classroom. Although not all learners in the classrooms could do that, most learners observed were actually able to apply content knowledge on their own and linked that to their previous knowledge as well.
Discussions
Teachers acknowledge the existence of diverse learners’ needs in their classrooms in the Jirapa Municipality, which aligns with Randi and Corn (2015) on cultural heterogeneity. The study findings confirmed that learners possess varied prior knowledge of the content that a teacher may deliver in the classroom. The variations may be obtained from their geographical location, where some learners may be advantaged over others (Gabaldón-Estevan, 2020). This means learners with high prior knowledge levels may require less supportive adaptive instructional designs to accomplish each learning task in the classroom than learners with low prior knowledge levels. As a result, Elmohamady (2017) suggests that the teacher should blend the teaching avenues such that those who were not privy to the learning content are not too much affected in absorbing what the teacher is imparting. This confirms previous studies (Hanover Research, 2018) that suggest that, for learners to be able to recap and/or link prior knowledge to current lessons, it behooves the teacher to deliver content in the classroom in the form of group demonstration, educational games, project work, class exercises, homework, and any other methods that learners can use to access and recall key content from previous lessons in the curriculum. This aligns with Tomlinson (2003, 2000) Differentiated Instruction theory, which advocates for teachers to adjust content for each learner in the classroom.
Furthermore, this study confirmed the diversity of learners in gender, age, experience, prior knowledge, and learning preferences in the classrooms in the Jirapa Municipality, as underscored by Rasheed and Wahid (2018). Westbroek et al. (2020) suggested that teachers should be mindful of the diverse learners’ needs in the classroom. Hence, teachers ought to mirror the understanding of these diversities in their teaching. This affirms the differentiated instructional theory, which proposes that classroom teaching should be responsive teaching that allows teachers to adjust content, process, and product as exposed by the differentiated instruction theory for each learner because of their diverse learning needs (Rasheed and Wahid, 2018; Tomlinson, 2003, 2000). Notwithstanding this, not every teacher adapted appropriate strategies to meet the diverse learners’ needs in the classroom in the Jirapa Municipality. This contradicts the findings of Parashar et al. (2022) and Dumont and Ready (2023). Hence, for all teachers to be able to adapt very well to teaching in the classroom, more continuous in-service training on adaptive instruction is needed for them to adjust themselves in content delivery and is critical in schools in the Jirapa Municipality. Notwithstanding this, the study revealed an implementation gap in the use of adaptive instructions. While teachers recognize diversity, fewer operationalize this awareness in their classrooms. This extends Gabaldón-Estevan (2020) work by demonstrating the perception and practice disparities in classroom teachings.
The perception–practice gap, which is a major contribution of this study, further agrees with the work of Parashar et al. (2022), which recommends continuous professional development on practical and actionable adaptive instructional strategies as an antidote to bridging the theoretical awareness gap among teachers in classrooms. Thus, stakeholders in education, including the Jirapa Municipal Education Directorate, must mobilize the needed resources to organize regular in-service training on practical adaptive instruction strategies as a way of addressing the perception–practice gap of teachers in adaptive instruction in junior high schools in the Jirapa Municipality. This perception–practice gap resolution is the basis (Westbroek et al., 2020; Rasheed and Wahid, 2018; Tomlinson, 2003) that advocates for teachers’ ways of imparting knowledge to match the diversities of learners. Therefore, teachers must include strategies and varied examples that interest learners from their varied cultural perspectives for common understanding by all learners during teaching (Gerth, 2022; Taylor, 2017; Gabaldón-Estevan, 2020; Curado, 2017).
This study established that when a learner is guided to discover knowledge by himself or herself, that knowledge may be applied better. This complements Curado, (2017) suggestion that the concept of lifelong learning connects individual learning experiences with formal, non-formal, and informal learning. This study underscores that an enhanced learning preference in an adaptive instruction classroom occurs when learners become aware of their learning options. This means the teacher should be able to exhibit suitable learning materials to facilitate the learning process (Westbroek et al., 2020; Hou, 2019; Corbin, 2017). Although teachers believe that adaptive instruction leads to an enhanced learning preference in the classroom, unfortunately, this could not happen because the teachers observed did not get to know the learners’ learning preferences. This made it difficult for the teachers to adjust, review, or create teaching styles that accommodate suitable materials in harmony with the learners’ learning preferences.
Furthermore, teachers disclosed that adaptive instruction helped learners to have sound receptive and retentive memory, and formative assessment supported classroom evaluation, which sustained learners’ interest. These corroborated the findings of Alhassan and Abosi (2014) that adaptive instruction allows the teacher to gain learners’ attention during instruction in the classroom and informs the teacher’s choice of instructional strategies and learning aids (Tomlinson, 2003). These satisfy learners’ needs most especially when the teacher is conscious of the learners’ learning environment and acknowledges the paces of learning. This means the teacher’s use of adaptive instruction will lead to some desirable outcomes in the class, such that learners will acquire lifelong learning, enjoy enhanced learning preferences from their teachers, and attain sound receptive and retentive memory. This confirms the study by Jahan et al. (2017) that adaptive instruction is the best strategy for teaching individuals within groups. Teachers who pay little or no attention to learners’ differences may not be responding to learners’ needs in the class.
Conclusion
In the study, teachers acknowledged the existence of diversity among learners in the classroom. Hence, teachers who implement adaptive instruction in classrooms will promote lifelong learning, enhanced learning preference, and sound receptive and retentive memory. This will enable such teachers to sustain learners’ interest in teaching and learning as well as in formative assessment.
Policy implications
The major contribution of this study is the perception–practice gap in implementing adaptive instruction in the classroom. This is because some teachers were still having difficulty implementing adaptive instruction in the classroom. This calls for the Ghana Education Service to formulate a clear policy mandating the integration of adaptive instruction strategies into lesson planning and delivery. This will provide a formal basis for supervision and instructional support for teachers in junior high schools in the Jirapa Municipality.
Recommendations
a The Ghana education service should incorporate adaptive instruction in in-service training programs to refresh the knowledge of teachers.
b School improvement support officers and head teachers in charge of the supervision of teachers should ensure that teachers incorporate adaptive instruction strategies in their lesson planning and classroom teaching.
c The government of Ghana and non-governmental organizations should provide junior high schools with the needed teaching and learning resources to support adaptive instruction.
Limitations of the study
The study lacks inferential statistical analysis to test differences or relationships. First, this was not the focus of the current study; however, it could be addressed in future research. Thus, its reliance on self-reported data from teachers and the observation of only 10 long-serving teachers in the service limits the generalizability of the findings.
Second, the study was conducted only in the Jirapa Municipality, whereas a broader geographic scope would have strengthened the robustness of the findings. Future researchers should employ a larger geographic scale and also test the efficacy of specific adaptive instructional strategies to close the perception-practice gap identified in this study.
Data availability statement
The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found: http://erl.ucc.edu.gh:8080/jspui/handle/123456789/10323?mode=full.
Ethics statement
The studies involving humans were approved by Institutional Review Board Secretariat University of Cape Coast Ghana. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardians/next of kin.
Author contributions
LS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis, Methodology. EN: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Validation. J-FL: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Resources, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.
Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
ReferencesAlhassanA. R. K.AbosiO. C. (2014). Teacher effectiveness in adapting instruction to the needs of pupils with learning difficulties in regular primary schools in Ghana. SAGE Open4:21582440. doi: 10.1177/2158244013518929AlhassanE.SusanL. (2017). Motivational strategies for teacher retention in the rural junior high schools in the Jirapa District of the upper west region of Ghana. EBSU J. Soc. Sci. Rev., 7, 63–85. doi: 10.7176/rhss/12-20-03AmedaheF. K.GyimahA. K. (2018). Introduction to measurement and evaluation. Ghana: CoDE Publications, University of Cape Coast.BernardR. M.BorokhovskiE.SchmidR. F.WaddingtonD. I.PickupD. I. (2019). Twenty-first century adaptive teaching and individualized learning operationalized as specific blends of student-centered instructional events: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Campbell Syst. Rev.15, 1–35. doi: 10.1002/cl2.1017BertramC. A.MthiyaneC. C. N.NaidooJ. (2021). The tension between curriculum coverage and quality learning: the experiences of south African teachers. Int. J. Educ. Dev.81:102353. doi: 10.4102/sajce.v9i1.702BooneH.BooneD. (2012). Analyzing Likert data. J. Ext.50, 1–6. doi: 10.34068/joe.50.02.48ChaudhryI. S.RahmanS. (2009). The impact of gender inequality in education on rural poverty in Pakistan: an empirical analysis. Eur. J. Econ. Finance Adm. Sci., 50, 174–188.CorbinA. (2017). Assessing differences in learning styles: age, gender and academic performance at the tertiary level in the Caribbean. The Caribbean Teaching Scholar7, 64–69.CreswellJ. W.CreswellJ. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Fifth Edit Edn New Delhi: Sage Publications India.CronbachL. J. (1975). Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology. Am. Psychol.30:116. doi: 10.1037/h0076829CuradoJ. (2017) How to combine formal, non-formal and informal learning in developing coaches: ICCE, European coaching council Available online at: https://pdfslide.net/download/link/aoehow-to-combine-formal-non-formal-and-informal-learning-education-formal (Accessed June 30, 2025)Del MundoH. J. C. (2022). 21st century digital skills, technology integration in instruction and challenges encountered by senior high school teachers in Muntinlupa National High School. Int. J. Multicultural Res. Analysis5, 1159–1172. doi: 10.47191/ijmra/v5-i5-35DoyleT. (2023). Helping students learn in a learner-centered environment: A guide to facilitating learning in higher educationNew York: Taylor & Francis.DumontH.ReadyD. D. (2023). On the promise of personalized learning for educational equity. NPJ Sci. Learn.8:26. doi: 10.1038/s41539-023-00174-x, 37542046ElmohamadyM. (2017). Adaptive learning environment (framework components and parameters)Egypt: Faculty of Graduate Studies for Education, Cairo University.FullanM. (2023). The principal 2.0: Three keys to maximizing impactSan Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.Gabaldón-EstevanD. (2020). Heterogeneity versus homogeneity in schools: a study of the educational value of classroom interaction. Educ. Sci.10:335. doi: 10.3390/educsci10110335GerthM. (2022). Is what they aspire what they get? The role of cultural heterogeneity in the classroom for the realization of abitur aspirations. SocArXiv. Universit¨ at zu K¨ oln. 1–17. doi: 10.31235/osf.io/tynpfGhiaraV. (2020). Disambiguating the role of paradigms in mixed methods research. J. Mixed Methods Res.14, 11–25. doi: 10.1177/1558689819894741GintingD.SabuduD.BarellaA. M.WoodsR.KemalaM. (2024). Student-centered learning in the digital age: in-class adaptive instruction and best practices. Int J Eval & Res Educ13, 2006–2019. doi: 10.11591/ijere.v13i3.27497Hanover Research (2018). Best practices for differentiated instruction. Arlington.HouY. J. (2019). Gender difference in language learning with interaction. Cham: Springer International Publishing.JahanA.KhanI. A.AsifF. (2017). Relevance of differentiated instructions in English classrooms: an exploratory study in the Saudi context. Int. Res. J. Human Resour. Soc. Sci.4, 274–294.KaushikV.WalshC. A. (2019). Pragmatism as a research paradigm and its implications for social work research. Soc. Sci.8, 1–17.KrejcieR. V.MorganD. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educ. Psychol. Meas.30, 607–610. doi: 10.1177/001316447003000308KrosnickJ. A.PresserS. (2010). “Question and Questionnaire Design” in Marsden P.V. and Wright J. D (eds). Handbook of survey research, second edition (Binley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited).LeenknechtM.WijniaL.KöhlenM.FryerL.RikersR.LoyensS. (2021). Formative assessment as practice: the role of students’ motivation. Assess. Eval. High. Educ.46, 236–255. doi: 10.1080/02602938.2020.1765228LoughlandT. (2019). Teacher adaptive practices: Extending teacher adaptability into classroom practice. Singapore: Springer.MaaliwIIIR. R. (2020). Adaptive virtual learning environment based on learning styles for personalizing E-learning system: design and implementation. Int. J. Recent Technol. Eng.8, 3398–3406. doi: 10.35940/ijrte.f8901.038620MateiA.GoguM. C. (2017) Adaptive education – A systemic proceedings of EDULEARN17 conference 3rd-5th July 2017, Barcelona, SpainMatsuyamaY.NakayaM.OkazakiH.LebowitzA. J.LeppinkJ.Van Der VleutenC. (2019). Does changing from a teacher-centered to a learner-centered context promote self-regulated learning: a qualitative study in a Japanese undergraduate setting. BMC Med. Educ.19, 1–12. doi: 10.1186/s12909-019-1550-xMayT.PerryB. (2022). Social research: Issues, methods and processLondon: McGraw-Hill Education (UK).NabiebakyeE.SusanL.AgezoC. K.ClementK. (2022). An investigation of the challenges and strategies of adaptive instruction in junior high schools in the Jirapa municipality of the upper west region of Ghana. Int. J. Res. Innov. Soc. Sci.6, 402–413. doi: 10.47772/ijriss.2022.61021NarhS. K. (2015). Learning difficulties amongst primary learners:A case study in knust primary, Kumasi. (master’s dissertation)Kumasi: Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology.NewmanR. S. (2023). “Adaptive help seeking: A strategy of self-regulated learning” In Schunk D. H. and Zimmermerman B. J. (Eds.) Self-regulation of learning and performance (New York, USA: Routledge), 283–301.Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (2018). The nature of learning using research to inspire practiceParis, France: OECD.ParasharA.ShekhawatR. S.DingW.RidaI. (2022). Intra-class variations with deep learning-based gait analysis: a comprehensive survey of covariates and methods. Neurocomputing505, 315–338. doi: 10.1016/j.neucom.2022.07.002PozasM.LetzelV.SchneiderC. (2019). Teachers and differentiated instruction: investigating differential practices to address learner diversity. J. Res. Spec. Educ. Needs30, 116–127. doi: 10.1111/1471-3802.12481RandiJ.CornL. (2015). Teaching and learning variations British psychological society. USA: University of New York.RasheedF.WahidA. (2018). The theory of differentiated instruction and its applicability: an e-learning perspective. VSRD Int. J. Technic. Non-Technic. Res.IX, 193–202. doi: 10.1016/j.eswa.2021.114774RodriguezAstridI. (2016). Impact of chronological age differences on the academic performance of learners in a first-grade classroom. J. Interdiscip. Undergrad. Res.8, 1–23.SarpongJ. K. (2024). Exploring secondary teachers’ culturally responsive pedagogy implementation and development for English language learners: A qualitative case study (doctoral dissertation)Indiana, USA: American College of Education.ShomeA. (2021). Can artificial intelligence enhanced robotic teaching assistant be a game changer in enhancing classroom engagement and learning among undergraduate students in our higher education institutes?J. High. Educ. Theory Pract.21, 216–218. doi: 10.33423/jhetp.v21i8.4516SottilareR. A. (2024). “Adaptive Learning, Training, and Education” in Stephanidis C. and Salvendy G. (Eds.) Human-Computer Interaction in Various Application Domains (Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press), 144–172.StaddonR. (2020). Technology and technology-enhanced learning: Age differences in use and attitudes (doctoral dissertation)Sheffield, UK: University of Sheffield.SunJ.ZhangC.LongT.TongM. (2024). Exploring acceptance toward tablet-based learning among K-12 students in Southeast China: age and gender differences. J. Comput. Educ.12, 529–549. doi: 10.1007/s40692-024-00319-wTaylorS. (2017). Contested knowledge: a critical review of the concept of differentiation in teaching and learning. Warwick J. Educ.1, 55–68.TetzlaffL.SchmiedekF.BrodG. (2021). Developing personalized education: a dynamic framework. Educ. Psychol. Rev.33, 863–882. doi: 10.1007/s10648-020-09570-wTomlinsonC. A. (2000). Differentiation of instruction in the elementary gradesChampaign, USA: ERIC Digest.TomlinsonC. A. (2003). Differentiation in practice: A resource guide in differentiating curriculum, grade 5–9. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.United Nations (UN) (2016). Sustainable development goals. New York: UN.Wang L., & Calvano L. (2022). Class size, student behaviors and educational outcomes. Organ. Manag. J., 19, 126–142. doi: 10.1108/omj-01-2021-1139WestbroekH. B.van RensL.van den BergE.JanssenF. (2020). A practical approach to assessment for learning and differentiated instruction. Int. J. Sci. Educ.42, 955–976. doi: 10.1080/09500693.2020.1744044ZhangY.GuoC.HouX.ChenW.MengH. (2021). Variants of social adaptation in Chinese adolescents: a latent profile analysis. Curr. Psychol., 142, 0761–10774.
Edited by: Irene Govender, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Reviewed by: Indira Padayachee, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
M. Marimuthu, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa