The term DHH refers to individuals who experience varying degrees of hearing loss, which affects their ability to process auditory information. This population is not homogeneous; it occurs across a range of hearing abilities and preferences for communication. The classification comprises two major groups. People who are deaf, commonly with severe hearing loss, may use signs or visual language for communication, while hard-of-hearing individuals may use residual hearing, hearing aids, or verbal communication (Cleminson, 2019; Fobi and and Oppong, 2019).

This review uses the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Technology Adoption Model (TAM) as guiding lenses to interpret the opportunities and challenges identified in the literature. By synthesizing findings through UDL principles, especially multiple means of engagement, representation, and action/expression, this review demonstrates how inclusive technology use can be optimized to meet the diverse needs of DHH learners (Levesque et al., 2024; Mohamed et al., 2022). These frameworks guide the interpretation of both teacher-driven innovations and systemic gaps reported in regional and international studies (Almaki et al., 2024; Almalky and Qaysi, 2025; Alsawalem, 2020; Baybayon, 2021).

From an educational perspective, the distinction between deaf and hard-of-hearing learners is very important as it determines the kind of support, instruction, and communication strategies that may be necessary. DHH students can be subdivided according to the age of onset (pre-lingual or post-lingual deafness), degree of hearing loss (mild, moderate, severe, or profound), communication method (oral, signed, or total communication), and assistive device usage (Fobi and and Oppong, 2019; Hrastinski and Wilbur, 2016; Whitaker and Morere, 2025; Choi et al., 2020). Research from Saudi Arabia and other countries has consistently found that sign language proficiency supports academic success in bilingual programs (Alzahrani, 2022; Liu et al., 2024; Chegovo et al., 2023). For example, Hrastinski and Wilbur (2016) found that deaf students in an American Sign Language (ASL)/English bilingual program who were highly fluent in sign language outperformed less fluent peers in reading, English, and math (Hrastinski and Wilbur, 2016). Olszak and Borowicz (2025) mentioned that deaf learners perform differently in learning tasks (even in foreign language learning), mainly because of hearing loss, the onset of language learning, and available support, and that students’ approaches vary with the modalities they employ (Olszak and Borowicz, 2025). In realistic classroom settings, when a student uses total communication or is enrolled in a sign language-bilingual program, teachers are expected to rely on visual support, sign interpreters, and specific techniques for language teaching. When a student does not use sign language, instruction focuses more on correct articulation, communication through lip reading, and the use of technological tools. These classifications guide individualized educational planning and dictate how students interact with the given instructional content and learning environments. These classifications are also important for planning targeted educational strategies.

Globally, the educational models of DHH students vary, and policy frameworks, cultural perceptions, and the availability of resources affect this variation. There are three dominant models: segregated special education, mainstream inclusion, and bilingual-bicultural (Bi-Bi) education. Segregated settings provide DHH students with specialized schools or classrooms with sign language and teacher training in deaf education that focus on individualized instructional strategies. Although such settings focus on support, they may incidentally constrain opportunities for social integration and academic inclusiveness (Acevedo et al., 2023). At the same time, mainstream inclusion places DHH students alongside hearing peers in regular educational environments, thereby encouraging equity and access to normative curricula (Alzyoudi et al., 2021; Kafia et al., 2023). However, its success depends on provisions such as interpreters, services for captioning and assistive listening devices, teacher preparedness, and institutional readiness. The Bi-Bi model, which is primarily a Western concept, presents sign language as the primary language of instruction, with spoken or written language as the second, affirming the value of deaf identity and culture (Green et al., 2025; Griffin, 2021). Many teachers still do not use real-time captioning or speech-to-text applications because of training gaps and limited Arabic accuracy; therefore, captioning is not widely used despite evidence that it can improve DHH students’ comprehension.

Globally, the role of technology in improving DHH learning is increasingly seen as a pillar of inclusive education (Humphries et al., 2025; Aljedaani et al., 2022; Chiu, 2025). These include speech-to-text apps, real-time captioning systems, sign language avatars, interactive whiteboards, and video-based e-learning environments oriented for visual learners. Empirical studies demonstrate that providing live captions in class can markedly improve DHH learners’ comprehension and test performance (ZainEldin et al., 2024; Jolly et al., 2024; Alsalamah, 2020). These technologies encourage the development of critical skills and collaboration among students, enriching both their studies and social inclusion (Navas-Bonilla et al., 2025). In high-income countries, educational technologies often reflect universal design principles through the use of digital content that accommodates diverse learners. For example, online learning environments create video lectures with closed captions or interpretations in sign language as an integral feature of most learning platforms. Captioned multimedia resources, interactive textbooks with visual annotations, and AI-enabled tools that convert speech to text in real time have made a significant difference in both the engagement and academic performance of DHH students (Levesque et al., 2023; ZainEldin et al., 2024).

Forms of technology that enable full two-way communication, such as captioned videoconferencing systems and applications that translate spoken language into signs, are becoming more common as tools that enable peers to interact and work together. These tools not only respond to instructional access but also to the social inclusion of DHH students in the learning environment (Alsalamah, 2020). However, access to these technologies remains uneven. Advancements in technology that allow conversion between spoken and sign language are vital for creating an effective two-way communication channel. In a recent study, researchers designed an AI-powered speech-to-text-to-sign translator and suggested that it plays a vital role in facilitating equal communication between deaf and hearing users (Madahana et al., 2022). Additionally, the absence of teacher training in the utilization of such tools contributes to their underutilization or ineffective integration into classroom practice (Castaño-Muñoz et al., 2025; Fteiha et al., 2024). Global experiences reveal that thoughtfully designed and implemented technology, when supported by inclusive pedagogy, can transform the educational experiences of DHH learners (Rodríguez-Correa et al., 2023; Madahana et al., 2022). For Saudi Arabia, the use of these international models, adjusted to cultural, linguistic, and systemic contexts, is necessary to create a sustainable and inclusive education system that will facilitate the learning and development of all students.

Technology has significantly enhanced the learning experience of DHH students. Customized solutions address communication gaps, increase engagement, and promote personalized learning. The use of educational technologies (from simple assistive devices to advanced interactive platforms) has made DHH learners as independent as possible in accessing, interpreting, and interacting with content (Chiu, 2025; Holt, 2019; Humphries et al., 2025). These tools are particularly useful in inclusive settings, where the existence of multiple communication needs requires flexible and multimodal approaches.

Assistive technologies form the backbone of support systems for most DHH learners (Humphries et al., 2025; Rodríguez-Correa et al., 2023; Holt, 2019). The most common are hearing aids, which make sounds louder and allow students to distinguish what is said better. Frequency Modulation (FM) systems transmit a speaker’s voice directly to a student’s device, thereby reducing the background noise. For example, Tomblin et al. showed that the audibility provided by properly fitting hearing aids moderated children’s oral language abilities, which in turn boosted their academic achievement (Tomblin et al., 2020). In advanced environments, digital interfaces in classrooms are supported by cochlear implants. In addition to amplification, speech-to-text software has transformed accessibility for DHH students who require text as input. Through these tools, spoken words are translated into actual transcriptions in real time, allowing learners to follow lectures, discussions, and instructions. A recent cohort study demonstrated better outcomes of cochlear implants in terms of language, academic performance, and quality of life (Cejas et al., 2023). Closed captioning systems installed in videos or live meetings deliver text that follows the audio content without relying on listening for understanding. Many services now offer automatic captioning features; however, accuracy remains a concerns in Arabic, especially for topics involving complex wording (Akasheh et al., 2024; Lasheen and Barakat, 2022).

The increase in Learning Management Systems (LMSs) has resulted in greater flexibility in content delivery and engagement, especially in inclusive classrooms. For LMS platforms such as Moodle, Blackboard, and Canvas, DHH students have asynchronous access to materials, which they review at their own pace. Embedded lyrics, visual resources, and downloadable lecture notes may help fill the gaps, as they can be created during live learning (Bradley, 2021; Li, 2023; Turnbull et al., 2022). Blended learning models that integrate face-to-face instruction and digital platforms are beneficial for DHH learners. Such models offer the possibility of accessing pre-recorded content with captions, using discussion boards to engage in typical interactions, and enjoying personalized learning tracks. When well designed, blended environments encourage higher levels of autonomy and help alleviate the stress involved in real-time auditory processing.

Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) are emerging technologies with great promise in special education and have a growing impact on DHH learners (Fernandes et al., 2024; Marougkas et al., 2023; Marougkas et al., 2024). By applying AR tools, digital visual information can be superimposed onto the physical environment, enriching real-world learning experiences through sign language translation, captions, or visual instructions (AlGerafi et al., 2023; Fernandes et al., 2024; Khazaie and and Ebadi, 2025). For instance, AR-enhanced textbooks may show sign language pop-ups or mark vocabulary words using visual cues. VR environments create immersive, distraction-free spaces where DHH students can engage in simulated scenarios with enhanced visual cues and guidance. In science or language learning, VR can be employed to replicate real-life settings, in which learners navigate content without auditory input. These technologies also provide teachers with the opportunity to tailor the pace and complexity of information to their individual needs. Although the use of AR/VR in DHH education is relatively new worldwide, preliminary findings indicate that these tools improves content retention, language acquisition, and motivation, leading to pilot program implementation (Marougkas et al., 2024; Wang and Li, 2024).

For many DHH students, sign language remains the primary or complementary mode of communication. Therefore, supportive technological tools for sign-language learning are crucial. For example, the Hand Talk translator application uses Artificial Intelligence to convert text or speech into sign language via a 3D avatar, supporting both ASL and Brazilian/Portuguese Sign Languages (Najib, 2025). Applications such as Hand Talk, VL2 Storybook Apps, and regional Arabic sign language platforms include interactive modules for vocabulary building, sentence construction, and comprehension. For example Herzig and Allen (2023) found a strong association between Storybook app usage, early exposure to reading-specific app pages, and ASL proficiency levels (Herzig and Allen, 2023). Video instruments, particularly those containing sign language interpretation integrated with spoken content, have become a key part of inclusive instruction sets. These are particularly useful in mainstream classrooms, where DHH students would otherwise not have full access to verbal instruction. Some educational institutions have begun recording lectures that incorporate sign language interpretation or deliver dual-format materials (spoken and signed) to ensure equitable access (Almalhy, 2022; Mohd Hashim and Tasir, 2020). A recent study by Almalhy in Saudi Arabia suggested that the optimal format may depend on the content type; for factual declarative content, videos with captions only led to significantly better comprehension scores than those with signing (Almalhy, 2022). Additionally, gamification introduces a sense of play and interactivity, which appears to benefit sign language learners (Oliveira and Freire, 2025).

The COVID-19 pandemic revealed several educational challenges related to DHH students and provided important lessons to improve DHH students’ education through different technologies (Bloom and Palmer, 2025; Alshawabkeh et al., 2021; Alqraini and Alasim, 2021). For example, a qualitative study in the UAE found that typical online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic lacked efficient communication channels and failed to address the needs of deaf students with concerns regarding communication media (Alshawabkeh et al., 2021). Furthermore, one study stated that e-learning based on an authentic sign language e-learning facility and technology improved deaf learners’ satisfaction with and motivation for their first e-learning experience (Niksiar et al., 2025). The digital transformation of Saudi education has increased the pace of integration of mobile learning tools and e-platforms in Saudi Arabia, especially in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. The platforms introduced by the Ministry of Education, “Madrasati” and the National E-Learning Center, have created new opportunities for inclusion. However, significant variation exists in the accessibility of these platforms for DHH learners and teachers (Aljedaani et al., 2021; Basonbul, 2023; Assiri et al., 2022). Although some platforms include closed-captioned and downloadable materials, the lack of sign language integration, scarcity of Arabic-based speech-to-text, and absence of visual customization remain significant barriers (Madhesh, 2021). Although there have been advancements in this field and several apps targeting deaf students and Arabic Sign Language (ArSL) (Al Khuzayem et al., 2024; Mohammad et al., 2022), systematic adaptation of digital tools still remains essential for DHH education in Saudi Arabia. Stakeholder reviews, particularly those of students and teachers, call for more culturally and linguistically appropriate tools, improved training of educators, and greater consideration of DHH needs during the national platform design phase. A summary of the main technology categories, settings, key outcomes, intended benefits for DHH learners, and the presence of Saudi/GCC evidence is presented in Table 2. Overall, captioning and LMS solutions are the most widely used locally, whereas AR/VR and advanced sign language tools have limited regional implementations.

The incorporation of educational technologies into DHH education in Saudi Arabia is associated with many opportunities and barriers. Several systemic and contextual impediments prevent the meaningful use of technology by DHH learners.

The inadequate distribution of infrastructure in schools is a major barrier to the meaningful integration of technology into DHH education (Albash, 2023; Madhesh, 2021). Globally, and in Arab countries, urban cities and some private institutions have instituted smart classroom technologies; however, most public schools, especially in remote or underserved areas, lack the minimum technological premises necessary for inclusive digital classrooms. Internet connections, high-quality interactive boards, power supplies, and hardware are often outdated and maintained inconsistently. The lack of such infrastructure hampers DHH students’ ability to access instructional content and participate in the classroom because of their dependence on visual media and live captioning (Albash, 2023). Even in an environment with hardware, lack of teacher preparedness continues to be a formidable impediment. Many teachers in Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries lack proficiency in using assistive technologies, captioning tools, or speech-to-text applications (Abu-Alghayth, 2022; Alshareef et al., 2022). The lack of general opportunities for professional development in deaf education and inclusive pedagogy further aggravates this issue. Educators might not only face difficulties in mastering technical aspects with digital tools, but may also find it challenging to comprehend how to compose a set of instructional practices adequate for the characteristics of DHH students’ communication. Even well-intentioned inclusion efforts can be superficial or ineffective without structured training programs. Conversely, some studies have found that teachers show a positive attitude and eagerness to integrate technologies (Almziad, 2025; Alghamdi et al., 2022; Ageel Mutlaq Alswilem, 2019).

Finally, DHH learners remain constrained from their full participation in regular schooling because of communication barriers and social stigma. A deficiency in peer-to-peer and a teacher fluency in sign language can lead to social segregation, and hinder collaborative learning (Alamri, 2024; Asiri, 2020). Even though there are technological instruments, they may still feel marginalized if the prevailing classroom culture is not inclusive. Additionally, some cultural misconceptions about disabilities could discourage the use of assistive tools or create reluctance toward inclusive technology among families. For example, in Basonbul (2023), identified several barriers in Saudi Arabia, including administrative, technical, teaching, family, and personal factors (Basonbul, 2023). These social factors must be addressed concurrently with technical interventions to achieve sustainable and meaningful change.

Despite these challenges, enablers and emerging best practices are shaping a more inclusive technological landscape in DHH education in Saudi Arabia and the wider Gulf region. This combination of factors highlights the potential of technology for transformation when embedded in enriched pedagogical and institutional surroundings.

In classrooms where inclusive practices have proven to work more effectively, innovative practices in the hands of teachers have been central (Silvestri and Hartman, 2022). Teachers who methodically adjust their strategies while using visual aids, modifying the LMS, or using captioned videos envision that technology integration does not have to be a resource-demanding process. Teachers who embrace a universal design for UDL principles design more student-friendly environments for all students, including those with hearing loss (Levey, 2021; Cumming and Gilanyi, 2023). Peer-supported models and the student-driven use of technology (captioning apps) have also been found to have the potential to enhance the engagement and autonomy of DHH learners. However, Almutairi and And Alsuwayl (2023) from Saudi Arabia demonstrated that their participants had only medium levels of knowledge regarding UDL (Almutairi and and Alsuwayl, 2023). Another study that assessed knowledge, readiness, and the need to implement UDL in the classroom suggested the need for training and professional development (Alquraini and and Rao, 2020). Saudi educators’ limited awareness of UDL and the need for further training to apply it effectively. Other GCC nations endorse inclusive education in policy; however, the explicit adoption of UDL-based practices in classrooms remains at an early stage.

In addition to UDL, the TAM can help understand the acceptance of modern technologies among teachers and students with disabilities (Almalky and Qaysi, 2025; Almaki et al., 2024). Some of the studies reviewed here capture the main concepts of TAM, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use, particularly in the context of teacher preparedness, training requirements, and student use of assistive technologies (Almalky and Qaysi, 2025; Aboud and Al Ali, 2025; Al-Obeidi and Ali, 2024). For example, Saudi Arabia can be used to illustrate that the lack of confidence or familiarity among educators implies that technology acceptance is usually not confined to the infrastructure but also to the perceived usefulness and ease of use of the tools (Alsawalem, 2020). The use of TAM in this regard can explain why even properly designed technologies cannot be used because users lack proper support or a certain degree of trust in their effectiveness.

Digital transformation and inclusive education have become evolving priorities for the Saudi Ministry of Education, which has planned investments in smart classroom infrastructures and implemented national e-learning platforms. Initiatives such as “Tatweer” and Vision 2030’s Human Capability Development Program consider accessibility and equity to be important (Tayan, 2017; Alsolami, 2024; Allmnakrah and Evers, 2019). Institutional support is available at universities and teacher colleges that offer special education and educational technology courses. Such actions lead to a policy environment productive for scaling technological solutions in special needs education. Nonetheless, management at the school level requires sustained investments and monitoring. Due to limited participation and many teachers’ lack of confidence in using tools (such as captioning apps or interactive media) for DHH students, a trend, mirrored in other GCC countries, is the gradual scaling up of specialized training for inclusive education technology.

Activities to enhance teacher and workforce training in the use of inclusive technologies are growing through workshops, certificate courses, and links with international education providers (Vosough Matin, 2023; Alsolami, 2024; Castellano-Beltran et al., 2025). Modules for in-service training are beginning to be developed for the use of captioning software, visual teaching strategies, and communication tools, albeit with limited reach. Learning programs based on a combination of theoretical and practical instructions have worked the best. Blended training models that allow teachers to practice using real devices in simulated classroom scenarios increase their competence and confidence.

Partnerships between international educational bodies and NGOs have provided access to expertise, resources, and frameworks for implementing inclusive technology. For example, partnerships with digital accessibility-oriented organizations have contributed to the creation of captioning tools for Arabic-language content and sign language dictionaries. Involvement in regional conferences and initiatives has also served as a platform for exchanging interstate best practices among Arab countries and preparing students (Al-Hendawi et al., 2023; Almalky and Alqahtani, 2021). Saudi Arabia’s response to global inclusive education standards has gradually advanced through reforms that emphasize data-driven planning, universal access, and accountability (Allmnakrah and Evers, 2019).

Teachers play a critical role in determining the effectiveness of technology in supporting learners who are DHH. Feedback from special education teachers indicates a high level of eagerness to use educational technologies but an understanding of the major limitations. Many teachers admit that they can better differentiate instruction and support their students because of digital tools, especially by creating and using multimedia content, interactive lessons, and assessments tailored to each learner’s needs (Meccawy, 2023; Sulaimani and Bagadood, 2023). For example, in Alrashdi (2024) stated that several barriers persisted in integrating these tools and delivering effective teaching (Alrashdi, 2024). Parents of DHH students are important stakeholders in the education process because they support technology use at home and ensure that their children’s needs are considered in school (Phillipson et al., 2024; Kurniati et al., 2022; Alford et al., 2023). In many cases, parental perceptions of educational technology are molded, in part, by digital literacy levels, cultural beliefs, and past interactions with the education system. In Arab countries, such families (who are tech-savvy or have access to private resources) are more likely to embrace and interact with digital tools in the classroom. Parents’ positive involvement is often associated with better academic results among DHH students, who may be encouraged to use educational apps, sign language content, and captioned video materials outside school hours. For example, a study from Qatar explored a novel method based on VR to teach the basics of Qatari Sign Language to teachers and parents and found significant findings (Ghoul and Othman, 2022). In another study, Abed and Shackelford stated that Saudi parents viewed technology positively for their disabled children’s education (Abed and Shackelford, 2024). Some families may invest in tools, such as personal devices or additional resources, including tablets with accessibility capabilities or specialized learning software. Such efforts may support classroom learning and help develop independence. While global studies often report the extensive use of advanced inclusive technologies, such as AI-based captioning systems or immersive AR/VR content, these innovations have not yet been widely implemented in the Saudi context. The review revealed that infrastructural limitations, shortage of Arabic-language digital content, and limited teacher preparedness often constrain technological integration in Saudi Arabia. The gap between global innovation and local readiness underscores the pressing need for regionally tailored strategies that account for linguistic, cultural, and institutional contexts.

Despite the increasing trend toward inclusive education and the use of technology, numerous knowledge gaps remain in the field of DHH education, particularly within the Saudi and GCC context. These gaps vary along the lines of research evidence, practical implementation, and policy development, and their remediation is crucial for the advancement of equity and effectiveness in technology-enhanced learning of DHH students. These knowledge gaps are discussed below:

Further studies should adopt a context-specific approach to examine the effectiveness of educational technologies for DHH students in Saudi Arabia and in the GCC region in general. First, localized studies that combine quantitative and qualitative approaches are required to understand the real-world effects of tools such as captioning systems, sign language-integrated platforms, and adaptive learning technologies on student outcomes. Future work should focus on developing and validating Arabic language digital resources, including content that supports Arabic Sign Language and culturally relevant instructional designs. Second, studies should extend beyond primary schooling to encompass childhood activities, vocational work, and tertiary settings where the sample remains underrepresented in the literature. Additionally, research should focus on family roles, with an emphasis on the development of parents’ digital literacy and their involvement in technology use within the family. Finally, future studies should examine the effectiveness of teacher-training models on inclusive technology utilization and determine lasting professional development strategies that can be adopted nationwide. Implementing these directions will build a stronger evidence base to inform stakeholder engagement in inclusive educational planning and innovation in the region.

To execute the aforementioned future directions, the following specific and testable research questions should be investigated.

Context-dependent mixed-method studies that answer these questions would reinforce the empirical basis for inclusive digital education practices and policymaking in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf region.