Self-reflection in physical education represents a complex pedagogical construct that requires critical examination beyond mere definitional consensus. The application of self-reflection in physical education is built on a deep theoretical foundation. Kidman and Carlson (2021) defined self-reflection as a conscious, systematic thinking process through which individuals examine their experiences, behaviors and thinking patterns in order to gain new insights and directions for improvement. In the field of physical education, this definition is further extended to include in-depth reflection and analysis of physical activity, motor skills, teaching strategies, or training methods (Koh et al., 2019). However, this definition raises critical questions about the operationalization of “systematic thinking” in dynamic physical contexts where immediate bodily responses may precede conscious cognitive processes.

The connection between self-reflection and constructivist theories in physical education is evident in motor learning processes. Self-reflection facilitates knowledge construction by enabling learners to connect prior movement experiences with new skill acquisition. This metacognitive process supports learner autonomy as students develop the ability to monitor their own motor performance, identify areas for improvement, and construct personalized learning strategies based on their individual movement patterns and capabilities.

Kolb and Kolb (2017) updated the theory of experiential learning to emphasize the importance of reflection in physical education. They state that effective learning is a cyclical process that includes four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active practice. This updated theory provides a more comprehensive theoretical underpinning for self-reflection in physical education. Cropley et al. (2020) built upon experiential learning frameworks to explore the use of ‘reflection in action’ and ‘reflection after action’ in modern physical education based on Schön’s theory. They emphasized that both types of reflection are becoming increasingly important in the digital and fast-paced physical education environment. However, their findings also revealed temporal constraints in applying reflection-in-action during high-intensity activities, suggesting that traditional reflective models may need modification for sport-specific contexts.

Self-reflection in physical education demonstrates three distinguishing characteristics, each presenting unique theoretical and practical challenges. First, the combination of bodily experience and cognitive processes. Toner and Moran (2022) introduced the concept of ‘kinesthetic reflection’, emphasizing that in physical education, reflection involves not only cognitive processes, but also an in-depth understanding of bodily sensations and movements. This embodied approach to reflection challenges traditional cognitive-focused models, yet research remains limited on how to systematically develop kinesthetic awareness in diverse student populations. Second, instant feedback and real-time adaptation. Kovalchik and Reid (2023) investigated how new technologies can enhance instant feedback and reflection in physical training. They found that the use of wearable devices and AI analytics significantly improved athletes’ ability to self-reflect and adjust in real time. Nevertheless, the dependency on technological mediation raises concerns about developing intrinsic reflective capacities and the accessibility of such tools across different educational contexts. Third, teamwork and interpersonal interactions. Santos et al. (2021) explored collective reflective processes in team sports. They found that effective team reflection not only improved individual performance, but also enhanced team cohesion and tactical execution. While promising, this research primarily focused on elite athletes, leaving questions about the scalability and effectiveness of collective reflection in general physical education settings.

Self-reflection in physical education is founded on several important theories that together form a comprehensive framework that guides practice and drives further research. A critical examination reveals significant gaps between theoretical assumptions and practical implementation challenges.

Dewey’s theory of reflection provides the foundation for self-reflection in physical education. According to Dewey, reflection is an active, ongoing, and deliberate consideration of beliefs or forms of practice based on the reasons that support it and the further conclusions to which it points (Rodgers, 2022). This theory emphasizes the purposive and practice-oriented nature of reflection, which is highly compatible with the nature of physical education. Recent research has shown that reflective practice based on Dewey’s theory plays a key role in improving athlete performance and coaching effectiveness (Cropley et al., 2020). Dewey’s principle of ‘deliberate reflection’ emphasizes the intentional and systematic examination of teaching practices. In motor skill instruction, this manifests as educators consciously analyzing their pedagogical decisions during skill demonstration, considering alternative approaches, and evaluating the effectiveness of their instructional sequences. For instance, a basketball coach applying Dewey’s reflective principles would systematically examine why certain shooting techniques are more effective for different students, rather than simply following routine instruction patterns.

Schön’s theory of reflective practice further deepens the application of self-reflection in professional practice. His concepts of ‘reflection in action’ and ‘reflection after action’ are widely used in physical education. For example, immediate adjustments made by athletes during a game can be considered ‘reflection in action’, while post-game technical analyses are a typical example of ‘reflection after action’. Whitehead et al. (2021) found that the combination of these two forms of reflection significantly improved athletes’ decision-making ability and technical performance. Schön’s distinction between ‘reflection-in-action’ and ‘reflection-on-action’ has particular relevance in sports instruction (Schön, 1983). Reflection-in-action occurs when a physical education teacher immediately adjusts their teaching strategy upon observing students’ movement patterns during skill execution. Reflection-on-action involves post-lesson analysis where teachers examine the effectiveness of their instructional choices and plan modifications for future sessions. This dual approach enables continuous improvement in motor skill pedagogy.

Kolb’s experiential learning theory provides important theoretical support for self-reflection in physical education. Kolb views learning as a cyclical process consisting of four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active practice (Kolb and Kolb, 2018). This theory is a perfect fit for sport learning, explaining how concrete sport experiences can be transformed through reflection into knowledge and skills that can guide future actions. Recent research has shown that reflective activities designed based on experiential learning theory are effective in improving athletes’ skill acquisition and tactical understanding (Santos et al., 2023). Kolb’s linear progression model may oversimplify the complex, non-linear nature of motor learning, where skill development often occurs through implicit learning processes that resist explicit reflection and verbalization.

Over recent decades, the focus of researchers and practitioners on reflection has expanded to include not only knowledge transfer but also the role of self-reflection in strengthening individual learning and fostering both personal and professional growth. Drawing on various theories of reflection (Gibbs, 1988; Johns, 2004; Moon, 1999), numerous self-reflection strategies have been proposed to encourage self-reflection, enabling learners to become aware of their intellectual development, refine their analytical and synthesis skills, and gain a deeper understanding of the meaning and relevance of new information. The analysis of lived experiences in learning provided opportunities for physical education teachers to apply knowledge in critical situations, promoted critical self-awareness, and encouraged self-evaluation (Dixon et al., 2022; Fabella and Libatique, 2024). The application of these strategies helps learners become aware of their personal intellectual development, enhances their analytical and synthesis skills, and enables a better understanding of the meaning and relevance of new information. Analyzing experiences from learning provides opportunities to apply knowledge in critical situations, encourages critical self-awareness, and promotes self-evaluation.

Self-reflection is an essential process for teachers of physical education, as it enriches their teaching experiences by adding depth and meaning, transforming everyday actions into intentional learning moments that can guide and improve their future teaching practices. For physical education teachers, this reflective practice helps them assess and adapt their methods, ensuring that each lesson is impactful and fosters both the physical and personal growth of their students (Standal and Moe, 2013; Tumynaitė, 2018; Azevedo et al., 2023; Bjørke and Quennerstedt, 2023). Through reflection, physical education teachers not only recall specific teaching moments but also examine the beliefs, values, and emotions tied to these experiences. This process shapes their understanding of teaching methods and helps them adapt their approaches in similar future situations. Continuous reflection fosters self-awareness and a sense of ownership over their professional development, integrating prior knowledge with new insights in ways that enrich both cognitive and emotional growth. By doing so, reflection supports teachers’ abilities to communicate their experiences to colleagues, share personal insights, and create mental frameworks or narratives that provide structure and meaning to their daily teaching practice.

Social cognitive theory, particularly the concept of self-efficacy developed by Bandura, has provided new perspectives for understanding the role of self-reflection in physical education. The study by Vater et al. (2022) found that through structured self-reflective activities, athletes can increase their self-efficacy, which positively affects their athletic performance and level of adherence. This finding emphasizes the importance of self-reflection in sport psychology. In recent years, several emerging theories have also begun to influence the study of self-reflection in physical education. For example, the theory of positive thinking has been introduced into the field of sport, with Noetel et al. (2019) showing that combining positive thinking exercises. Likewise self-reflection can improve athletes’ concentration and emotion regulation. In addition, complex systems theory has provided new perspectives for understanding collective reflection in team sports (Ramos et al., 2020). Together, these theories form a theoretical foundation for the study of self-reflection in physical education, providing guidance for practice and directions for further research.

Relevant literature was retrieved by searching the core databases of Web of Science (WOS) and SCOPUS. Both databases are widely recognized as the most authoritative and reputable publisher databases (Pranckutė, 2021). These databases were selected for their comprehensive coverage of high-quality peer-reviewed literature in education and sports science, ensuring capture of both theoretical and empirical studies on self-reflection in physical education contexts.

The inclusion and exclusion criteria were systematically developed to ensure comprehensive coverage while maintaining methodological rigor. Publications were included if they met all of the following criteria: (1) peer-reviewed journal articles published between 2000 and 2024 to capture two decades of research development; (2) English language publications to ensure consistent interpretation and analysis; (3) studies explicitly addressing self-reflection as a primary or secondary focus within physical education contexts; (4) empirical studies or systematic reviews providing evidence-based insights. Publications were excluded if they represented non-peer-reviewed materials (books, conference abstracts, dissertations), focused on self-reflection outside physical education contexts, or lacked sufficient methodological detail for quality assessment (Table 1).

Based on the guidelines for systematic evaluation and meta-analysis, we designed the search strategy TS = ((‘Physical education’)AND(‘self-reflection’)). The study spanned the database search from January 2000 to 1 June 2024 to better accommodate the continuity and completeness of research over the past 20 years. The specific process of inclusion and deletion criteria based on the study objectives is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 illustrates the selection process for a systematic literature review. The researchers first conducted an extensive search in the WOS and Scopus databases using the keywords ‘Physical Education’ and ‘Self-Reflection’ for the period from 2000 to 1 June 2024, and 207 relevant records were identified. After the de-duplication process (n = 22), the remaining 185 full-text articles entered the applicability assessment stage. During the eligibility assessment phase, the researchers screened 51 articles related to the physical education scene while excluding many non-eligible documents, including non-physical education related (n = 117), non-article types (books n = 8, conferences n = 6), and non-English articles (n = 3). Ultimately, 46 articles for which full text was available were included in the analyses, and a further five were excluded because full text was not available. This rigorous screening process ensured that the literature ultimately included in the analysis was highly relevant and reliable, laying a solid foundation for the subsequent systematic review.

To ensure the reliability of the screening data, literature screening was carried out and recorded by two of the authors acting independently of each other, and controversial literature was analyzed by discussing with a third reviewer and making a final decision.

The inter-rater reliability (consistency) was calculated as follows:

K-value (average agreement) k = M/N × 100 percent.

Reliability (R) R = (n × k)/(1 + (n – 1) × k).

The K-value is 94% and the reliability (R) is 0.9987 which is greater than 0.9. This indicates that the agreement between the two evaluators was very good as reliability values above 0.9 are considered highly reliable (Gaur and Kumar, 2018). This high inter-rater reliability confirms the consistency and objectivity of the study selection process.

Data analysis was conducted using VOSviewer (version 1.6.18) for bibliometric network analysis and visualization of research trends. Additional analytical tools included: (1) thematic analysis using NVivo 12 to identify recurring themes and patterns across included studies; (2) temporal analysis to examine research trends over the 24-year period; (3) quality assessment using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) for empirical studies and AMSTAR 2 for systematic reviews; (4) geographic and institutional analysis to identify research clusters and collaboration patterns. Scientometric indicators analyzed included publication trends, citation patterns, author collaboration networks, and keyword co-occurrence analysis to map the intellectual structure of the field.

Each included study underwent systematic quality assessment using established criteria. Empirical studies were evaluated using the MMAT framework, assessing methodological quality across five categories: qualitative, quantitative randomized controlled trials, quantitative non-randomized, quantitative descriptive, and mixed methods studies. Systematic reviews were assessed using AMSTAR 2 criteria. Studies were not excluded based on quality scores but were weighted in the analysis according to their methodological rigor.

The assessment effects of self-reflection in physical education are mainly reflected in three aspects: skill improvement, cognitive development and affective attitude. In terms of skill enhancement, many studies have shown that through systematic self-reflection, participants are able to master motor skills more quickly and improve their flexibility and creativity in the application of skills (Kolovelonis et al., 2012; Lin et al., 2019).

In terms of cognitive development, self-reflection helps to improve learners’ metacognitive, problem-solving and critical thinking skills. In terms of affective attitudes, self-reflection can enhance motivation, increase self-efficacy, and develop positive attitudes toward learning. The selection and development of assessment tools is an important aspect of self-reflection research. Currently, commonly used assessment tools include questionnaires, reflective journals, interviews and observations. Among them, questionnaire scales such as the Reflective Practice Questionnaire (Maksimović and Jelena, 2018) and the Physical Education Teaching Reflectivity Scale (Zach and Ophir, 2020), which provide reliable measurement tools for quantitative research. Reflective journals and interviews are widely used in qualitative research, providing a rich case count (Goh et al., 2020).

In recent years, with the development of technology, some innovative assessment tools have begun to emerge. For example, video analysis software has been used to assess the self-reflective processes of athletes and coaches (Schulz and Gaudreault, 2023); wearable devices and mobile apps offer new possibilities for real-time reflection and data collection (Brussoni et al., 2018). These tools have not only improved the accuracy and convenience of assessment but have also expanded the content and form of self-reflection.

Physical education has historically emphasized movement-based practices, creating challenges for integrating intellectual and reflective practices. Research in Germany (Serwe-Pandrick et al., 2023) identified specific barriers including time constraints, space limitations in sports halls, and resistance to written formats, which hinder the effective integration of movement and intellectual practices in PE classes. These challenges significantly influence physical education teachers’ instructional approaches, though didactic interventions based on “reflective practice” principles may help bridge this gap.

Physical education teachers can implement self-reflection strategies through several key approaches. Primary methods include maintaining regular teaching journals to analyze teaching successes and challenges, enabling continuous refinement of instructional methods (Azevedo et al., 2023; Lin et al., 2021). Peer observation and feedback provide fresh pedagogical insights through colleague interaction (Kitching, 2024), while collecting and analyzing student feedback offers a foundation for instructional improvement (Li and Zhang, 2023). Additionally, engagement in professional development activities and action research fosters deeper reflection, as exemplified by Berg Svendby’s (2016) critical interpretive doctoral research on inclusive practices.

Research demonstrates the effectiveness of combining multiple reflection strategies. For instance, an action research study in Portugal examined critical reflectivity development in preservice physical education teachers through guided external facilitation (Azevedo et al., 2023). The study, involving six preservice teachers in four reflective inquiry cycles, used interviews, journals, and observations to enhance understanding of teaching challenges and student needs. Similarly, Iwaki et al. (2020) employed a descriptive qualitative approach with in-depth interviews to explore gymnastics instruction, revealing complex interconnected themes in elementary physical education classes in Japan.

For students, self-reflection in physical education typically follows two main pathways. The first pathway involves teacher-guided self-reflection as a tool for skill acquisition, knowledge enhancement, and self-esteem improvement (Duivenvoorden et al., 2021; Lin et al., 2021, 2022; Rubeli et al., 2020). The second pathway focuses on generating new insights and alternative approaches to skill acquisition (Castelli et al., 2022; Mong and Standal, 2022; Rejman et al., 2020).

Practical implementation includes encouraging students to set personal goals, monitor motor skill changes, and reflect through various mediums. Lin et al.’s (2021) “SQIRC-based mobile flipped learning” model exemplifies this approach, strengthening pre-class preparation and in-class reflection through cognitive apprenticeship. Additional methods include reflective exercises and activity contemplation. Rejman et al.’s (2020) study on swimming skills revealed gender differences in self-reflection accuracy, while Mong and Standal (2022) found students preferred non-assessed reflection journals.

In the implementation of self-reflection strategies in physical education, several key dichotomies emerge that shape both the research approach and practical application. These dichotomies represent not merely opposing concepts, but rather a continuum along which reflection practices can evolve and develop.

The first dichotomy concerns the temporal dimension of reflection, contrasting short-term versus long-term studies. Short-term reflection often focuses on immediate feedback and quick adjustments to teaching or learning strategies, providing valuable insights for day-to-day improvements. However, long-term studies offer a more comprehensive understanding of developmental patterns and systematic changes in both teaching and learning. Research by Azevedo et al. (2023) demonstrates that while immediate reflection serves important pedagogical purposes, the sustained engagement in reflective practices over extended periods yields more profound insights into teaching effectiveness and student development.

The second dichotomy addresses the depth of reflection, distinguishing between superficial and in-depth reflection practices. Superficial reflection typically involves basic observations and immediate reactions to events or experiences in physical education settings. In contrast, in-depth reflection engages in deeper analysis of underlying principles, relationships between different aspects of learning, and complex pedagogical challenges. Berg Svendby’s (2016) research highlights how moving beyond surface-level observations to deeper reflective analysis can reveal important insights about inclusion and accessibility in physical education, particularly in understanding the complexities of student experiences and needs.

The third dichotomy explores the tension between reflecting on known elements versus discovering unknown aspects through reflection. When reflecting on known elements, teachers and students examine familiar practices, established routines, and recognized patterns in physical education. However, the process of discovering unknown elements through reflection can lead to innovative approaches and unexpected insights. Serwe-Pandrick et al. (2023) emphasizes how this exploration of unknown territories through reflection can help bridge the gap between traditional movement-based practices and intellectual engagement in physical education.

Most significantly, researchers consistently advocate for a progressive movement along these dichotomies. The progression from short-term to long-term engagement allows for more sustainable and meaningful changes in practice. Similarly, the transition from superficial to deeper reflection enables more substantive understanding and improvement. This progression is not linear but rather cyclical, where each level of reflection builds upon previous insights while opening new avenues for exploration and understanding.

The integration of these dichotomies in physical education research and practice suggests a developmental trajectory for both teachers and students. As practitioners become more experienced with reflective practices, they naturally move toward longer-term perspectives, deeper analysis, and more exploratory approaches. This progression aligns with the broader goals of physical education in developing not just physical skills, but also cognitive abilities and metacognitive awareness.

The effective implementation of self-reflection in physical education requires careful attention to several interrelated critical elements in Figure 5. First and foremost, continuity stands as a fundamental principle in the reflection process. Rather than treating reflection as isolated or sporadic events, it should be seamlessly integrated into daily teaching and learning practices. This continuous integration allows both teachers and students to develop consistent reflective habits, enabling them to track progress, identify patterns, and make meaningful adjustments to their respective practices over time (Lin et al., 2021).

Comprehensiveness represents another crucial element in the implementation of effective self-reflection. The scope of reflection should extend beyond mere skill acquisition to encompass multiple dimensions of learning and development. This includes not only the physical and technical aspects of movement skills but also the cognitive processes involved in learning and the emotional experiences that accompany physical education. Such a comprehensive approach ensures that reflection addresses the whole-person development that is central to quality physical education (Duivenvoorden et al., 2021; Rubeli et al., 2020).

The principle of methodological diversity acknowledges that learners have different preferences and styles in their reflective practices. Some students might respond better to written journals, while others might prefer verbal discussion or digital platforms for reflection. Teachers should therefore implement various reflection methods to accommodate these different learning preferences and ensure that all students can engage effectively in the reflective process. This diversity in methodology also helps maintain student engagement and prevents reflection from becoming monotonous or routine (Mong and Standal, 2022). However, our findings also revealed that excessive methodological variety without clear pedagogical rationale can lead to implementation inconsistency and reduced effectiveness.

Perhaps the most critical finding from our cross-study analysis was the pivotal role of psychological safety in determining reflective practice success. Teachers must intentionally foster an atmosphere characterized by openness and trust, where students feel safe to express their thoughts, share their experiences, and acknowledge both successes and challenges. This supportive environment encourages authentic reflection rather than superficial responses designed to meet perceived expectations. Research indicates that when students feel supported and trusted, they are more likely to engage in meaningful reflection that contributes to their learning and development (Rejman et al., 2020).

The interconnected nature of these elements – continuity, comprehensiveness, methodological diversity, and a supportive environment – creates a robust framework for implementing effective self-reflection in physical education. When these elements are thoughtfully integrated, they create conditions that maximize the benefits of reflective practice for both teachers and students, contributing to enhanced learning outcomes and professional development in physical education settings (Azevedo et al., 2023; Berg Svendby, 2016).

The increasing adoption of various self-reflection strategies suggests a new era in physical education, potentially resolving the longstanding tension between theory and practice, or more specifically, between thought and action. This evolution indicates a shift toward more integrated approaches in physical education pedagogy. Several methodological limitations warrant consideration. First, the predominance of small-sample qualitative studies (n = 22, 48%) limits the generalizability of findings across diverse educational contexts. Second, the lack of longitudinal studies restricts understanding of long-term impacts of reflective practices. Third, cultural bias is evident as 70% of studies originated from Western educational systems, potentially limiting applicability to non-Western contexts. Finally, the absence of standardized measurement tools across studies complicates cross-study comparisons and meta-analytical synthesis.

This conceptual framework requires empirical validation through controlled implementation studies across diverse cultural and educational contexts. Future research should examine the framework’s applicability in non-Western educational systems, investigate optimal balance between framework components, and develop standardized measurement tools for assessing implementation fidelity and effectiveness. Additionally, longitudinal studies are needed to examine how this framework performs over extended implementation periods and whether modifications are required for different age groups or activity contexts.