The education system worldwide is grappling with a fundamental challenge: translating the ideals of inclusive education into everyday classroom realities. At its core, inclusive education is about creating learning environments where all students, regardless of their abilities, needs, or backgrounds, have equal access to opportunities and resources (Carmel et al., 2025; Kamran and Siddiqui, 2024; Schwab et al., 2024). This vision of inclusivity extends beyond physical integration, envisioning a regular classroom teacher – not a specialist – who can effectively teach students with diverse aptitudes and achievement histories (Auhl and Bain, 2025).

The push for inclusive education gained significant momentum with the 1994 UNESCO Salamanca Statement, which called on nations to make education accessible to all children, particularly those with disabilities and those marginalized by social barriers like poverty (Yusuf and Fajari, 2025). Since then, an array of education systems has introduced policies and programs aimed at serving all students, including those with special educational needs (Adams et al., 2025). However, the gap between policy intentions and on-the-ground practices remains stubbornly wide (Mosia and Kotelo, 2024). Schools often fall short of fostering a truly inclusive spirit, partly because the responsibility for inclusion has been thrust upon teachers without adequate support (Walton, 2023). This expectation mismatch is particularly acute in initial teacher preparation programs, where theoretical knowledge often fails to translate into practical skills for managing diverse classrooms (Arnaiz-Sánchez et al., 2023). Unsurprisingly, many novice teachers feel ill-equipped to teach students with varied learning needs (Graham et al., 2025), and entrenched beliefs about disability continue to erect barriers in the classroom (Benson and Alborno, 2025).

The problem is multifaceted. Despite progressive policies, educators often lack clear guidance on implementing inclusive practices (Sharma et al., 2024). The increasing diversity of student populations imposes a perplexity, especially for student-teachers who need substantial support to recognize and address individual learning needs (Obrovská et al., 2024). Teaching in heterogeneous classrooms can be daunting, and navigating this complex landscape requires pre-service teachers to possess not only pedagogical knowledge but also sufficient psychological resilience and self-efficacy (Pov and Kawai, 2025). However, the pathway to developing these psychological assets is not fully understood, revealing critical gaps in the existing literature. While the positive relationship between self-efficacy and resilience is established (Mieres-Chacaltana et al., 2025), several nuances remain underexplored. First, there is a lack of clarity on how specific demographic variables shape this relationship. Second, the underlying mechanisms are not well-defined; for instance, it is unclear whether factors like teaching experience influence resilience directly or indirectly by first bolstering self-efficacy. Finally, quantitative findings often fail to capture the subjective experiences of pre-service teachers, leaving a gap in our understanding of the “why” and “how” behind their reported feelings and strategies.

To address these gaps, this study examines three specific demographic predictors: gender, prior teaching experience, and familial ties to teaching. The rationale for these variables is rooted in their potential to shape a student-teacher’s developing professional identity and beliefs as explained in the following section. Furthermore, this study employs a mixed-methods mediation design to provide a comprehensive analysis. The quantitative component allows for the testing of a structural model to clarify the predictive pathways between demographics, self-efficacy, and resilience, while the qualitative component enriches these findings by exploring the lived experiences, challenges, and support systems that give rise to these psychological constructs. By integrating these approaches, this study seeks to build a more holistic and contextually grounded understanding of pre-service teacher preparedness for inclusive education (Sánchez-Jiménez et al., 2025).

Resilience, defined as the ability to sustain psychological well-being and professional commitment amid the chronic stressors of teaching (Fehérvári and Varga, 2023; Gilar-Corbi et al., 2024). In inclusive settings, resilience enables teachers to navigate emotional demands, behavioral complexities, and systemic pressures while maintaining instructional quality (Graziano et al., 2024; Lu et al., 2024; Pozo-Rico et al., 2023). A key factor underpinning teacher resilience is teacher self-efficacy, i.e., the belief in one’s capacity to execute instructional strategies, manage classrooms, and engage students (Emiru and Gedifew, 2024; Wang D. et al., 2024; Wang X. et al., 2024). Recent evidence underscores a symbiotic relationship between these constructs: teachers with robust self-efficacy tend to exhibit greater resilience, which in turn boosts their capacity to thrive in inclusive environments (Mu et al., 2024; Salvo-Garrido et al., 2025). Educators with high self-efficacy are more likely to deploy adaptive teaching strategies (e.g., output = input or flexible grouping), foster student autonomy, and persist through instructional challenges (Vieira et al., 2024; Yang and Wang, 2025; Zee and Koomen, 2016). A strong sense of self-efficacy is reportedly a reliable predictor of successful inclusive practices (Griful-Freixenet et al., 2021). Conversely, low self-efficacy often correlates with avoidance of inclusive strategies, overreliance on rigid pedagogies, and heightened stress when holding heterogenous classrooms (Woodcock et al., 2022). Specifically, self-efficacy for inclusion – the confidence in teaching diverse learners in mainstream classrooms – is linked to teachers’ intentions to create inclusive environments (Selenius and Hau, 2024).

While the relationship between teacher self-efficacy and resilience is well-documented (Mu et al., 2024), less is known about how specific demographic factors – such as gender, teaching experience, and having relatives in the teaching profession – influence this dynamic, particularly in the context of inclusive education. The impact of familial ties to teaching on self-efficacy and resilience remains underexplored, and findings on the role of gender are mixed (Alnahdi and Schwab, 2021; Woodcock et al., 2022). Previous teaching experience, however, appears to shape self-efficacy beliefs significantly (Franzen et al., 2024; Symes et al., 2023). The theoretical underpinnings for the influence of these demographic factors can be drawn from Bandura’s (1991). Social Cognitive Theory, which posits that self-efficacy beliefs are built through four main sources. Prior teaching experience directly relates to “mastery experiences” – the most powerful source – where successful performance in challenging situations builds a robust sense of efficacy. Familial ties to teaching can provide “vicarious experiences” (observing family members navigate the profession) and “social persuasion” (receiving encouragement or advice), both of which can shape an aspiring teacher’s confidence. While gender is not a direct source of efficacy, it operates within the social environment, potentially influencing self-perceptions and resilience through cultural norms and role expectations (Mayor-Silva et al., 2025). The scarcity of research on these variables is striking, given that most studies focus on general teacher self-efficacy and resilience rather than the specific context of inclusive teaching. A notable exception is the study by Yada et al. (2021), which found that Finnish pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive practices was positively influenced by having relatives (beyond parents) in the teaching profession and prior teaching experience; in turn, self-efficacy strongly predicted their resilience in delivering inclusive education, which was also reciprocally affected by gender.

This study builds directly on Yada et al.’s (2021) work, aiming to replicate their investigation in a different socio-cultural context with two key enhancements. First, to address the original study’s limitation of a relatively small sample (105 students from one university), this research targets a significantly larger cohort – 283 pre-service teachers across eight universities – thereby increasing the robustness and generalizability of the findings. Moreover, deliberate efforts were made to mirror the original study’s 21% male respondent ratio (by ensuring at least 21% male participation) to maintain demographic comparability. This is not merely a geographical replication but a step toward cross-national validation of the relationships between self-efficacy, resilience, and demographic predictors in inclusive education. Second, and crucially, this study responds to Yada et al.’s call for qualitative insights to complement quantitative data; to this end, interviews were conducted that allowed for the exploration of how self-efficacy and resilience are experienced by those with practical classroom background. By addressing these gaps, this study aims to advance understanding of how demographic factors shape pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy and resilience for inclusive teaching through a mixed-methods approach. Specifically, four research questions guide this inquiry:

By bridging quantitative and qualitative lenses, the present exploration can advance the understanding of how pre-service teachers’ beliefs and experiences coalesce to shape their readiness for inclusive education. This is a step toward ultimately accumulating and enriching the evidence on the topic.

Using a convergent parallel design, chosen to enable simultaneous collection and independent analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data while maintaining the distinct value of each data type, this non-experimental study combined correlational predictive research with a qualitative survey. The research examined possible statistically significant interactions between selected measurable variables, while concurrently collecting and separately analyzing interview data. Approval of the research project was obtained from the ethics committee at the first author’s institution.

This investigation set out to examine the interplay between self-efficacy for inclusive practices and resilience among pre-service teachers within a novel socio-cultural setting, building upon the foundational work of Yada et al. (2021). The study sought to determine if self-efficacy predicts resilience, whether specific demographic factors (gender, having teaching relatives, prior experience) influence these constructs, the potential mediating role of self-efficacy, and how student-teachers themselves articulate their experiences with self-efficacy, resilience, and barriers in inclusive education. The quantitative analysis affirmed that higher self-efficacy in inclusive teaching significantly corresponds with greater resilience. Furthermore, prior teaching experience emerged as a potent predictor for both heightened self-efficacy and enhanced resilience, whereas familial connections to the teaching profession showed only a marginal, non-significant link to resilience, and gender demonstrated no discernible impact on either outcome. Qualitative insights echoed these findings, illustrating the complex tapestry of pre-service teachers’ conceptualizations of inclusion, their fluctuating confidence levels shaped by practical encounters, the emotional labor involved, and the perceived inadequacies in formal preparation contrasted with the high value placed on experiential learning.

Interpreting the quantitative results unveils a compelling narrative about the development of essential teacher attributes for inclusive settings. The robust positive relationship between prior teaching experience and both self-efficacy and resilience underscores the irreplaceable value of hands-on practice. Engaging directly with diverse learners in real classroom environments appears to be a critical forge for building confidence (self-efficacy) in managing inclusive demands and cultivating the psychological fortitude (resilience) needed to persist through challenges. This finding suggests that pedagogical knowledge, while necessary, is insufficient without the experiential crucible where theoretical concepts are tested and refined. Moreover, the significant pathway from self-efficacy to resilience indicates that a pre-service teacher’s belief in their capability to implement inclusive strategies functions as an internal resource, bolstering their capacity to navigate the stresses inherent in the profession. The non-significant findings for gender and the marginal effect of having teacher relatives suggest these factors may be less universally impactful than direct experience, at least within this specific sample and context.

Comparing these findings with the seminal work of Yada et al. (2021) reveals both convergences and divergences. Consistent with the Finnish study, this investigation confirmed a potent positive association between pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive practices and their self-rated resilience, reinforcing this link as a potentially fundamental aspect of teacher development for inclusion. However, divergences emerged regarding demographic predictors. First, the absence of gender differences in the present sample contrasts with the Finnish finding that women reported higher resilience, aligning with the contradictory literature Yada et al. themselves acknowledged.

While this study was not designed to test this specific socio-cultural question, one possible post-hoc interpretation relates to the differing status of the teaching profession. It could be hypothesized that in the current study country, where teaching is an overwhelmingly feminized, low-paid profession with limited social prestige, any potential gender-specific effects on resilience may be overshadowed by shared concerns about economic precarity and professional status; that is, both male and female student-teachers may perceive the profession through a lens of economic vulnerability and low status, thereby dampening any gender-specific boost to self-efficacy or resilience that might otherwise arise from role congruence. This contrasts with Finland, where teaching is also feminized (Räsänen et al., 2024), but it enjoys high social prestige (Hansen and Jóhannesson, 2024), potentially amplifying gendered role congruence effects that bolster women’s resilience.

Whereas Yada et al. found an influence of having relatives (other than parents) in the profession on self-efficacy, this study observed no significant impact of having any relative teacher on self-efficacy, and only a near-significant trend toward resilience. This may be rooted in contrasting teacher-education pathways. Finnish programs integrate extended, highly mentored practicum periods from the first year (Mankki et al., 2025; Varis et al., 2023), reducing the relative influence of family socialization. Conversely, the local system front-loads theoretical coursework and offers shorter, less standardized placements, making prior informal exposure via relatives less impactful. Additionally, this quantitative finding is indirectly explained by the qualitative data. The interviews pointed to the primacy of direct, hands-on mastery experiences as a critical factor in building confidence and resilience (Themes 2 and 4). This emphasis on personal practice suggests that more passive sources of self-efficacy, such as the vicarious experiences that might be gained from relatives, play a comparatively minor role in this context.

Importantly, while both studies recognized the role of experience, the present analysis explicitly demonstrated its strong direct predictive power for both self-efficacy and resilience, and further identified self-efficacy as mediating the experience-resilience relationship, adding a layer of explanatory depth. The larger, multi-university sample and the mixed-methods design of this study address specific limitations noted by Yada et al., enhancing the robustness of these comparative points.

The qualitative data richly complemented and extended the quantitative results, offering a granular view into the lived experiences of pre-service teachers grappling with inclusive education. Participants’ varied conceptualizations, often caught between aspirational ideals and practical complexities (Theme 1), highlight an ongoing process of sense-making. Their self-efficacy (Theme 2) appeared dynamic and domain-specific – stronger perhaps in classroom management than intricate curriculum adaptation – and profoundly shaped by mastery experiences, where both successes and navigated failures proved formative. This aligns with Bandura’s social cognitive theory, emphasizing the power of enactive attainment in shaping efficacy beliefs. The narratives surrounding resilience development (Theme 3) painted a picture of significant emotional challenge met with emerging adaptive coping strategies, such as cognitive reframing (“win jar,” focusing on achievable goals) and sheer persistence, illustrating resilience not as a fixed trait but a developed capacity. These accounts provide experiential validation for the quantitative pathway showing self-efficacy as a significant predictor of resilience (β = 0.159, p = 0.044), as participants described how confidence built through successful experiences directly contributed to their ability to persist through challenges. Critically, the qualitative findings underscored a perceived disconnect between theoretical university preparation and the demands of real classrooms (Theme 4), while simultaneously affirming the paramount importance of practical placements for skill development and confidence building. Identified barriers, spanning systemic constraints like time pressure to personal limitations like fear and bias (Theme 5), alongside vital supports like peer networks and candid mentorship, provide tangible targets for intervention.

The connection between these qualitative themes and the broader literature is clear. For instance, the systemic barrier of time pressure reported by our participants (Theme 5) is a well-documented source of teacher stress (Zagni et al., 2025) that can erode both self-efficacy and resilience (Floress et al., 2024; Gilar-Corbi et al., 2024). Conversely, the crucial role of mentor and peer support networks aligns with research identifying strong social connections as a key protective factor that fosters teacher resilience (Smala et al., 2025; Versfeld et al., 2025). The qualitative data suggest that resilience is cultivated through a combination of cognitive reappraisal (changing how challenges are viewed), emotional regulation (managing distress), seeking social support (drawing on peers and mentors), and problem-solving (adapting strategies), reflecting established models of stress and coping. The gap between theory and practice reported by participants points toward a potential lack of situated learning opportunities within university coursework, making practicum experiences disproportionately influential.