The rapid advancement of digital technology has significantly transformed educational delivery methods, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Yet, this transformation remains inequitable, particularly for visually impaired learners who continue to face substantial challenges in accessing and interacting with digital learning environments. To address these inequities, global frameworks such as the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG 2.1) and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) advocate for the creation of accessible digital learning environments. In Indonesia, where WhatsApp is a widely adopted social communication tool, its potential for inclusive distance learning becomes especially relevant when integrated with assistive technologies such as screen readers, braille displays, and voice-command functions (Al-Azawei et al., 2017). Similarly, social media platforms, such as WhatsApp, which are widely adopted in Indonesia, present opportunities for inclusive distance learning when coupled with assistive technologies like screen readers, braille displays, and voice-command tools (Wang et al., 2023).

However, despite the proliferation of digital tools, marginalized populations such as visually impaired students remain underserved in remote learning contexts, facing unique technological and pedagogical barriers (Wulandari et al., 2025). Visual impairment refers to a significant limitation in one or both eyes that cannot be fully corrected by conventional means, such as glasses or surgery. It includes conditions ranging from low vision to total blindness. Students with visual impairments often rely on assistive technologies such as screen readers, braille displays, and voice-command software to participate in educational activities. These tools enable them to interact with digital content, but the effectiveness heavily depends on the accessibility design of the educational platform used.

Educational activities are organized taking into account factors such as individuals' age and developmental levels. These activities encompass individuals who possess the necessary competence in terms of health conditions, as well as those referred to as having a disability (Bahadir and Bahadir, 2024).

Education for students with visual impairments typically requires tailored instructional approaches and accessible learning environments. In Indonesia, these students are often educated in special schools (SLB), where face-to-face interactions and tactile-based materials are done every day. The abrupt shift to online learning due to the pandemic has posed substantial barriers to these students, highlighting the inadequacies in digital infrastructure and teacher preparedness.

In Indonesia, visually impaired students are primarily educated in special schools (SLB) using tactile instruction and face-to-face instruction. The sudden shift to online learning highlighted the inadequacy of existing digital infrastructures, teacher training, and accessible content. This context emphasises the importance of research into how commonly used communication applications, already familiar to students, can be leveraged as effective learning platforms (Mardiana et al., 2019).

WhatsApp—a widely familiar social application—offers accessibility features compatible with screen readers and voice commands, enabling visually impaired students to access materials and communicate effectively. Its asynchronous nature supports flexible engagement, promoting autonomy and self-paced learning (Ratnaningsih et al., 2024). A critical question emerging from this transformation is how learners balance WhatsApp's original social uses with its adoption as a structured learning tool, and what roles educators play in fostering such behavioral change. The absence of digital platforms and resources that are easily accessible is one of the primary challenges that visually impaired students encounter in the context of remote learning (Maaga, 2016). Although mainstream social media platforms, such as WhatsApp, provide opportunities for communication and collaboration, they often fail to offer the necessary features and accommodations to ensure equitable access for visually impaired users (Halim et al., 2024). Furthermore, the disparities in learning outcomes between visually impaired students and their sighted counterparts are exacerbated by the absence of tailored educational content and instructional materials.

The existing literature on distance learning among visually impaired students primarily emphasizes the significance of inclusive design principles in overcoming the obstacles presented by inaccessible technology (Isaila, 2014). Research has highlighted the crucial role of assistive technologies, such as screen readers and voice-to-text software, in enabling individuals with visual impairments to access digital content. Nevertheless, there is a lack of research focusing on the effectiveness of specific digital platforms, such as WhatsApp, in meeting the unique requirements of visually impaired students in the context of remote learning (Landicho, 2016).

Despite the increasing role of social media in education, limited empirical research exists on how platforms like WhatsApp can be specifically adapted to support the learning of visually impaired students. This gap underscores the need for focused investigation into both student and teacher experiences (Rahmadi, 2020). Additionally, the necessity of addressing this critical research deficit is underscored by the scarcity of empirical research that examines the experiences and perspectives of visually impaired students and educators in the context of remote learning through the use of social media.

This study aims to address these research gaps by exploring how visually impaired students and educators in Indonesia have adapted WhatsApp as a communication medium for remote learning. Through in-depth interviews and observational techniques, this research seeks to uncover insights that can inform the development of inclusive educational strategies and technological interventions tailored to the unique needs of visually impaired learners.

The primary objectives of this research are twofold: firstly, to investigate the extent to which WhatsApp is an effective communication medium for facilitating remote learning among visually impaired students; and secondly, to identify the primary challenges and barriers encountered by visually impaired students and educators in applying WhatsApp for educational purposes. To enhance educational equity and accessibility for individuals with visual impairments, this research aims to inform the design and implementation of future interventions by elucidating the nuances of digital accessibility and inclusivity in the context of remote learning.

Existing literature rarely examines how familiar social applications are transformed into structured learning platforms for students with disabilities. Specifically, there is limited knowledge of how visually impaired learners manage the tension between social and academic use, how prior familiarity with WhatsApp facilitates learning adoption, and how autonomy is supported in such digitally mediated environments (Misirli and Ergulec, 2021). This research addresses these gaps by analyzing both behavioral adjustments and pedagogical strategies that support this digital transition.

This research employs a qualitative case study approach to explore how visually impaired students adapt WhatsApp as a learning platform. Participants included six high school students with visual impairments (four with low vision and two who were blind), as well as two teachers from SLB in Bandung City, Indonesia. The sample size of this research (six students and two teachers) is small and limited to a single special education institution, which restricts its generalizability. All participants had pre-existing familiarity with WhatsApp, meaning their experiences may not accurately represent those of new users. In addition, self-reported data may be subject to response bias, and the study lacked longitudinal tracking to examine the long-term sustainability of WhatsApp-based learning. Future studies should expand participant demographics and compare different platforms to further assess accessibility and usability. The selection criteria required students to own smartphones, be familiar with WhatsApp, and actively participate in distance learning activities. Although the sample size was limited, it provided in-depth insights into accessibility practices and user adaptation.

All participants had prior experience using WhatsApp socially before it transitioned to educational use. Data Collection included (1) semi-structured interviews via WhatsApp voice calls, (2) observation of class interactions in WhatsApp groups, and (3) review of shared learning materials. Data Analysis followed a thematic approach, employing coding and categorization using NVivo 12 software. Trustworthiness was ensured through triangulation (data source and method), member checking, peer debriefing, and maintenance of an audit trail, addressing credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (Bungin, 2013).

In selecting informants, a purposive technique guided the identification process, aligning with the specific criteria essential to the research objectives (Bungin, 2013). High school students enrolled in the Computer Information Technology specialization class were targeted, ensuring the research focus was relevant to their studies. These students were required to possess smartphones and be active WhatsApp users, thus facilitating their engagement in distance learning activities. Informants were either diagnosed with low vision or were blind, ensuring representation across the spectrum of visual impairment. Similarly, teachers instructing Computer Information Technology subjects were included in the informant pool, enriching the research with their perspectives and experiences.

A rigorous data collection methodology was employed in line with established research standards (Fadli, 2021). Drawing on Creswell's guidelines, a combination of observation and interviews conducted via WhatsApp calls was used to gather insights directly from the informants. This multifaceted approach enabled researchers to gain a comprehensive understanding of the distance learning process from various vantage points, including both student and teacher perspectives. By leveraging WhatsApp calls, researchers transcended geographical barriers, engaging informants in meaningful dialogue regardless of their physical location (Creswell, 2016).

The involvement of eight informants, comprising six students and two teachers at the high school level, ensured a diverse range of perspectives and experiences. This diversity enriched the data collection process, enabling researchers to capture the full spectrum of challenges and opportunities inherent in using WhatsApp for distance learning among visually impaired individuals. Through in-depth interviews and meticulous observation, researchers sought to unearth valuable insights that could inform future educational practices and policy decisions. The informant (s) details as per Table 1.

Overall, the research methodology underscores a commitment to thoroughness and rigor, ensuring the validity and reliability of the findings. By adopting a qualitative approach rooted in real-life cases, the researchers aim to make meaningful contributions to the discourse on inclusive education and digital accessibility for visually impaired students in the digital age.

The results and discussion section presents the implementation of distance learning at SLB in Bandung City, Indonesia, which relied heavily on social media communication technology, particularly WhatsApp. This choice was driven by the widespread use of WhatsApp among visually impaired high school students, facilitated by accessibility features such as screen readers available on smartphones or computers. Notably, WhatsApp emerged as the most widely used social media platform among these students, surpassing alternatives such as Facebook, Telegram, Instagram, and the TeamTalk application (Zia and Zehra, 2019). Its versatility allowed for various functionalities, including private messaging and group chats, which facilitated seamless coordination and communication among students and teachers.

Observation data revealed that: (a) students separated academic and social communication by creating dedicated learning groups, (b) all six students were able to access shared materials independently using screen readers, and (c) students used voice note features extensively, reporting that it reduced typing difficulties. Teachers observed a 30%−40% increase in student participation compared to pre-experiment online sessions using email.

The learning process via WhatsApp encompassed several key activities, including attendance tracking, delivery of study materials, interactive question-and-answer sessions, discussions, and assignment submissions (Qamar et al., 2019). Teachers initiated each session by sending messages to students, to confirm attendance and readiness for learning. Subsequently, lessons commenced, with teachers providing explanations and addressing students' questions. Additionally, practice test questions or assignments were distributed in various formats, such as Word, Excel, or PDF files, while some teachers utilized Google Forms for assessments. The asynchronous nature of communication via WhatsApp allowed flexibility in accessing and responding to learning materials, accomodating to the diverse needs of visually impaired students.

The results indicate that WhatsApp's transformation from a social application to a learning platform for visually impaired students was driven by several key features: accessibility through screen readers and voice commands, asynchronous communication enabling self-paced learning, and the sharing of multimedia content (text, audio, and video). These features were already familiar to students through their social use of WhatsApp, reducing training barriers and supporting quick adoption. The ability to create dedicated learning groups, separate from social groups also facilitated the transition to an academic context.

This research highlights the importance of leveraging familiar mobile application to overcome barriers to online education for visually impaired students. WhatsApp's adoption addressed the limitations of specialized e-learning platforms by offering inclusive communication and interaction features. However, the findings also show that effective use requires training for both students and teachers to ensure content accessibility and manage communication norms.

The asynchronous nature of WhatsApp enabled students to manage their learning independently while continuing to use the platform for social interaction. By separating communication spaces and adopting personalized notification settings, students verified their experiences of autonomy, demonstrating how a typical mobile application can support inclusive and flexible education when combined with proper instructional guidance and digital self-regulation practices.

The outcomes of distance learning, as perceived by both students and teachers, were overwhelmingly positive. Students demonstrated increased openness in communication, enhanced engagement in learning activities, and adherence to punctuality standards. Moreover, students reported a comprehensive understanding of the material and active participation in discussions and assignments. Teachers noted significant improvements in students' ICT skills, including proficiency in using adaptive learning applications tailored for the visually impaired.

The effectiveness of WhatsApp as a communication medium for distance learning was further supported by student testimonials, which highlighted its ease of use and diverse features that facilitate communication. The study emphasizes the crucial role of modern assistive technology in enabling quality education for visually impaired students, underscoring the potential of platforms like WhatsApp in fostering inclusive learning environments. Overall, the findings affirm the transformative impact of technology-enabled distance learning initiatives in empowering visually impaired students and supporting their academic success.

Figure 1 illustrates the types of social media used by students with visual impairments. WhatsApp emerged as the most widely used platform, followed by Facebook, Telegram, Instagram, and TeamTalk. The dominance of WhatsApp supports its selection as the primary platform for this study, reinforcing its familiarity and functionality among the participants.

WhatsApp is the most widely used social media platform among these high school students, although they also use other social media platforms, such as Facebook, Telegram, Instagram, and Teamtalk applications (Yurtay et al., 2015). The WhatsApp features utilized included private messages and WhatsApp groups. In each class at this level, a group was formed for various coordination and communication purposes related to learning, comprising students and teachers. Meanwhile, private messages were used by students, for example, to submit assignment answers or communicate individually about learning. The learning schedule was adjusted to the usual in arrangements in schools prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Before the lesson, subject teachers sent a message to the students via WhatsApp, asking whether all had attended or were ready to study at their respective homes, and students were instructed to reply by writing their names, attendance, and readiness report.

After the students reported their attendance, the lesson began. The teachers taught them, and those who did not understand the explanations gave feedback by asking questions. Sometimes, practice test questions or assignments were also provided. Hence, through this WhatsApp group, communication and learning took place, and students actively participated.

Practice test questions or assignments provided by the teacher could be in Word, Excel, or Notepad file format, and students were asked to submit their answers using the same form. Additionally, some teachers used Google Forms as a means of administering practice test questions. However, information on time, themes, and links to Google Forms was provided via the group chat. After the link was shared, the students were instructed to access it repeatedly until they reached the maximum score. Then, the teacher stated that feedback should be sent via private message on WhatsApp personally.

The learning process via WhatsApp included attendance, delivery of study materials, question-and-answer sessions, discussions, responses to questions, and individual assignments. This was to ensure that students obtained the material properly as the primary reference for understanding the lesson. Some of the materials were obtained directly from the teacher, while others were accessed online, as instructed by the group.

The interactive session via WhatsApp was intended to create a dynamic, conducive learning atmosphere and open up communication spaces, with the hope that students can still achieve good outcomes and use the internet for positive purposes, as explained by a teacher:

“In some assignments that I give to students, I instruct them via WhatsApp group to search for the answers on the internet. This is intended so that students can learn actively and independently find learning resources online, becoming accustomed to using the internet for positive purposes. Then, we will discuss their [search] results together in the WhatsApp group.”

This explanation was delivered by one of the teacher informants. The teacher assigned students to search for references on the internet to train them to become independent and active learners, enabling them to locate sources of information independently and become more proficient in using ICT tools. According to the subject teacher, the outcomes of distance learning, were that students became more open in their communication and more active, which allowed them to complete the target learning material on schedule. The students also stated that they comprehended the material well and adhered to punctuality rules when studying from home. They completed assignments and participated in discussions with both peers and the teacher. Furthermore, in terms of grades and understanding, the students' achievements were classified as good, as explained by a teacher who taught the Computer Implications subject:

“Based on the final grades of learning outcomes in the subject of Computer Implications, it can be seen that the learning outcomes are good. Students can demonstrate skills in using computers, cellphones, and adaptive learning applications for the blind, search for reading sources, communicate, find references about ICT, and present them, as well as give positive comments.”

In line with what was stated by the teacher, students with visual impairments at the high school level also found it quite effective to learn from home via WhatsApp because the features in WhatsApp also supported their communication activities with the teacher in the learning process, as explained by informant students:

“Learning is quite effective even though it is not face-to-face, but via WhatsApp. That is because, during class, not only does the teacher provide materials and assignments, but also conduct question-and-answer sessions and discussions. If something is not clear, I can ask, and the teacher will explain it again. WhatsApp also makes it very easy for us to communicate. Various features [of WhatsApp] support us. We can send messages in text, voice notes, [message with] voice-to-text, pictures, and videos. It is quite effective for distance learning from home.” (interview with informant student SLB in Bandung City)

Based on the results, WhatsApp served as a communication medium in the learning process, utilized in nearly all distance learning processes, including subject matter provision, interactive discussions, and the exchange of test documents or examinations for learning evaluation, during the COVID-19 pandemic (illustrated in Figure 2).

Figure 2 illustrates Computer-Mediated Communication (WhatsApp) in distance learning for students with visual impairments. It also depicts the learning process, beginning with searching for and sharing information, continuing through the discussion of learning materials and culminating in the submission and collecting documents for the test and exam.

Visual impairment has been perceived variably across societies throughout history and is regarded as the deprivation of an individual's most esteemed sense (Bahadir and Bahadir, 2024). Visually impaired students at the high school level found it quite effective to learn from home via WhatsApp, as its features also supported their communication activities with teachers in the process (Putri, 2023).

The following is an excerpt from an interview with a student:

“Learning is quite effective even though it is not face-to-face, but via WhatsApp. That is because, during class, not only does the teacher provide materials and assignments, but also conduct question-and-answer sessions and discussions. If something is not clear, I can ask, and the teacher will explain it again. WhatsApp also makes it very easy for us to communicate. Various features [of WhatsApp] support us. We can send messages in text, voice notes, [message with] voice-to-text, pictures, and videos. It is quite effective for distance learning from home.”

The messages conveyed to visually impaired students during the learning process are presented in written form, accompanied by photos (for those with low vision) and voice recordings. As explained in CMC theory, communication via computer (in this case, via WhatsApp on a smartphone) can be directly conveyed (synchronously). It can also be asynchronous, which involves delayed interaction where each participant takes turns as both sender and receiver, typically occurring when there is a distance between the creation or delivery of content and its consumption. The forms of communication identified in this study are listed in Table 2.

Table 2 summarizes the different types of messages exchanged via WhatsApp during the learning process. It categorizes messages into text, voice, and document formats, while also distinguishing their synchronous/asynchronous nature and whether they were saved. This classification demonstrates the varied yet structured communication enabled by WhatsApp.

As explained in CMC, communication messages via a computer (in this case, via WhatsApp on a smartphone) can be in a synchronous form or directly conveyed, which occurs when both teachers and students communicating are online simultaneously or respond to messages directly. Meanwhile, asynchronous interactions, which involve delayed responses, occur when messages are not read or opened immediately and when there is a gap between the creation or delivery of content and its consumption. Synchronous communications in WhatsApp video calls are not used because they do not utilize the visual display. Otherwise, asynchronous communication is preferred. The asynchronous CMC mode may provide them with more opportunities to think, and therefore, they produced more discourse functions related to question types and strategies. According to An and Frick (2006), asynchronous CMC is preferred primarily because it offers more time for reflection and idea development. Students with visual impairments, who need to concentrate more when speaking, compared to advanced-level learners or native speakers. Calvo noted that participants often feel more relaxed in asynchronous CMC activities to synchronous ones. Various message forms available in WhatsApp facilitated active discussion, collaborative learning, and easy interaction. Chats with general purposes are potentially used for learning environments in an accessible way (Calvo et al., 2014). Among social applications, WhatsApp arguably supports mobile learning goals well. Moreover, the emotional engagement of the groups used was higher (Kashian and Liu, 2019), and the utilization of app features proved that a tool was also needed to support effective communication when exchanging ideas with teachers and fellow students.

Figure 3 visualizes the message forms analyzed by NVIVO 12 discussed in Table 2, emphasizing how WhatsApp's features accommodated multiple learning preferences. The figure reinforces the flexibility and adaptability of the app in supporting visual and audio-based communication modes.

According to the students and teachers involved in the study, WhatsApp offers a more effective way for students to access information and knowledge independently, efficiently, and quickly during distance learning. The research also supports the view that there is a high level of interaction among the learning material, students, and the teacher through this app. The general implication is that the potential of modern assistive technology is immense in achieving quality education for individuals with visual impairments. The results and discussion section presents the implementation of distance learning at SLB in Bandung City, Indonesia, which heavily relied on social media communication technology, particularly WhatsApp. This choice was driven by the widespread use of WhatsApp among visually impaired high school students, facilitated by the accessibility features such as screen readers available on smartphones or computers. Notably, WhatsApp emerged as the most widely used social media platform among these students, surpassing other platforms such as Facebook, Telegram, Instagram, and the Team Talk application. Its versatility allowed for various functionalities to be utilized, including private messaging and group chats, facilitating seamless coordination and communication among students and teachers. The learning process via WhatsApp encompassed several key activities, including attendance tracking, delivery of study materials, interactive question-and-answer sessions, discussions, and assignment submissions. Teachers initiated each session by sending messages to students, confirming attendance and readiness for learning. Subsequently, lessons commenced, with teachers providing explanations and addressing students' queries. Additionally, practice test questions or assignments were distributed in various formats, such as Word, Excel, or PDF files, with some teachers utilizing Google Forms for assessments. The asynchronous nature of communication via WhatsApp allowed for flexibility in accessing and responding to these learning materials, catering to the diverse needs of visually impaired students.

Interactive sessions via WhatsApp were designed to foster a dynamic and conducive learning atmosphere, encouraging active participation and engagement among students. Teachers strategically incorporated activities that promoted independent learning, such as assigning research tasks requiring students to explore and analyze information on the internet. This approach aimed to cultivate students' autonomy and proficiency in utilizing ICT tools, aligning with modern educational goals emphasizing digital literacy and independent learning. The outcomes of distance learning, as perceived by both students and teachers, were overwhelmingly positive. Students demonstrated increased openness in communication, enhanced engagement in learning activities, and adherence to punctuality standards. Moreover, students reported a comprehensive understanding of the material and active participation in discussions and assignments. Teachers noted significant improvements in students' ICT skills, including proficiency in using adaptive learning applications tailored for the visually impaired.

Figure 4 highlights the key educational benefits of WhatsApp use. It shows improvements in academic performance, engagement, learning autonomy, and support for diverse learning styles. This figure encapsulates the transformative outcomes of the WhatsApp-based learning model implemented in the study.

The effectiveness of WhatsApp as a communication medium for distance learning was further supported by student testimonials, which emphasized its ease of use and diverse features that facilitate communication. The study highlights the critical role of modern assistive technologies in enabling quality education for visually impaired students, demonstrating the potential of platforms like WhatsApp in fostering inclusive learning environments. Overall, the findings underscore the transformative impact of technology-enabled distance learning initiatives in empowering visually impaired students and supporting their academic success.

This research contributes direct experimental evidence showing how visually impaired high school students and teachers effectively adapted WhatsApp as a primary platform for distance learning. Unlike previous studies that relied heavily on secondary sources, this study collected original data through real-time experimentation, interviews, and observations.

Additionally, the research presents a practical workflow (Figure 4) that illustrates how WhatsApp can be configured for inclusive learning. This workflow includes accessibility training for teachers and students, establishing academic communication groups, and integrating assistive technologies (such as screen readers, voice notes, and notification management).

Figure 5 outlines the research workflow and summarizes the primary findings. It includes the setup of WhatsApp groups, delivery of content, interaction strategies, and key metrics such as satisfaction levels and perceived learning autonomy. The figure serves as a visual summary of the methodology and outcomes.

This study is subject to several limitations that must be acknowledged. First, the sample size was relatively small, involving only six students and two teachers from a single special education institution in Bandung, Indonesia. This restricts the generalizability of the findings across broader educational contexts or diverse geographic locations. Second, the research relied heavily on self-reported data from interviews and observations, which may introduce bias or subjectivity in responses. Additionally, the study did not include a longitudinal component, which limits insights into the long-term effectiveness and sustainability of using WhatsApp as a learning platform for visually impaired students. Finally, all participants were already familiar with WhatsApp prior to its educational use, which may not reflect the challenges faced by first-time users. Future studies should consider larger, more diverse samples and include comparisons across different digital platforms to enhance the robustness of findings.

This study highlights the transformative potential of WhatsApp as an inclusive learning tool for visually impaired students in Indonesian high schools. The findings underscore the app's ability to facilitate accessible, asynchronous, and personalized education through its native features, such as voice messaging, multimedia sharing, and screen reader compatibility. With pedagogical adaptations and technological affordances, both students and teachers overcame several barriers typically associated with distance education for learners with visual impairments. This research contributes nuanced, context-specific evidence to the growing literature on inclusive mobile learning, particularly in under-resourced educational environments. The implementation of WhatsApp led to increased student autonomy, improved academic performance, and strengthened communication between students and educators. The practical implications reveal that, when creatively adapted, mainstream mobile platforms can expand digital equity for marginalized learners. Future research could investigate the comparative effectiveness of WhatsApp vs. other assistive technologies, its long-term impact on learning outcomes, and its potential scalability across varied educational levels and regions. Studies could also examine the role of policy, infrastructure, and teacher training in sustaining inclusive mobile learning initiatives.