The Ministry of Education (MINEDUC) in Rwanda, through the Rwanda Basic Education Board (REB), has revised its curriculum to shift from a knowledge-based curriculum (KBC) to a competence-based curriculum (CBC) in 2015. The curriculum was revised with a national aspiration to develop students’ competencies, including knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values, to enable them to succeed in an era of rapid technological growth and socio-economic development (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020; Rwanda Basic Education Board [REB], 2015). In this regard, the CBC was designed to promote a learner-centered approach and replace teacher-centered and passive learning. Thus, learners should participate in their learning, construct knowledge themselves, and develop new knowledge. This act allows them to conceive learned knowledge and transform it into skillful output and value its usefulness in their daily life. (REB, 2015). Since 2016, the CBC has been implemented in pre-primary through secondary schools in Rwanda. However, a gap was found in assessing the implementation of the CBC since there is no documentation to fulfill the need (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2021). A standard classroom observation tool is needed to provide reliable data about the extent to which teachers apply active teaching methods as a result of an effective implementation of CBC.

REB in partnership with various developmental partners (DPs) such as Japan International.

Cooperation Agency (JICA), Building Learning Foundation (BLF), British Council, Well Spring, Educate!, and Inspire-Educate-Empower (IEE-Rwanda), among others, has continuously trained teachers to implement CBC across the country. However, a gap was found in implementing the curriculum since the traditional teaching approach still dominates the class (Nsengimana Mugabo et al., 2021; Uwizeyimana et al., 2018). In the study conducted by Ndihokubwayo et al. (2021) about the implementation of CBC, it was found that the CBC implementation faces challenges such as the lack of budget for organizing training and teachers during Continuous Professional development (CPD) and some teachers who resist CBC approaches. However, Ndihokubwayo et al. (2020) later assessed the implementation of CBC and found that learner-centered was improved over the past 5 years. The researcher employed a qualitative survey for 29 sector education officers (SEOs) to learn about the CBC implementation and monitoring experience. The emphasis was on investigating the collaboration between SEOs, district officials, school leaders, and teachers. Yet, no classroom observation tool was in place to be used specifically assessing the teacher’s adoption of learner-centered teaching approaches through PjBL. Therefore, there is a need to assess the extent to which teachers use different teaching methods to implement some active learning methods such as project-based learning (PjBL).

PjBL-based instructions are distinct from other learning models because they focus on students’ ideas, particularly in developing their picture of working on relevant topics based on students’ interests and experiences. During PJBL, the teacher’s job is to mentor and counsel students rather than oversee and regulate their work (Serin, 2019). PjBL encourages students to be independent while managing their tasks and study time. During PjBL, students use effective strategies, seeking answers to questions using cognitive problem-solving approaches (Fisher et al., 2020; Serin, 2019). Through PjBL, students collaborate in groups to solve complex issues grounded in the curriculum. Students choose what activities to engage in and how to tackle a challenge. In this context, students collect data from many sources, synthesize it, examine it, and draw knowledge from it (Han et al., 2016). Indeed, the studies by Han et al. (2016) and Wakumire et al. (2022) found that PjBL enhances active knowledge acquisition and skills development. Scholars like Twahirwa et al. (2021) and Gasana et al. (2023) conducted studies on the effectiveness of PjBL and claimed that PjBL promotes active learning, knowledge acquisition, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking among students. There is a need to assess the teachers’ teaching practices in incorporating PjBL to teach different subjects using adequate lesson observation tools. Teaching requires ongoing multiple decisions and responsive actions based on the observed teaching and learning processes. Performing essential teaching aspects can be measured using well-designed observation tools (Stearns et al., 2012). To my knowledge, no standard tool was developed and used to assess the extent to which the PjBL was employed during instructions. Thus, a Lesson Observation Tool for Project-based Learning (LOTPBL) was developed to assess the extent to which the teacher apply PjBL key elements (see Appendix).

Scholars have developed lesson observations tool to assess whether learning is active or passive. For instance, Ndihokubwayo et al. (2020) developed a Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP) and used it to assess the implementation of CBC to teach science subjects in secondary schools in Rwanda. The emphasis was put on classroom dynamics, such as learners’ active participation. In addition, an Observation and Analytic Protocol (OAP) was developed (Sawada et al., 2002). The tool is made of a 25-KO to assess whether the instruction is standards-based, inquiry-oriented, and student-centered. Furthermore, Hora (2015) developed an Observation Protocol Teaching Dimensions Observation Protocol (TDOP). The TDOP is made of codes, revealing active learning modalities such as being active (students answering questions), being constructive (students asking questions and students doing creative tasks), and being interactive (students working with peers). The reviewed tools have limitations in focusing on students’ dynamics. This gap leaves a need for developing a tool suitable to assess the extent to which students are engaged when an active teaching method such as PjBL was employed.

The study was based on the constructivism learning theory (Bada and Olusegun, 2015). Constructivism is a learning theory found in psychology that explains how people learn to acquire knowledge. The theory suggests that individuals construct knowledge from their experiences. Through this theory, students conduct investigations and perform meaningful tasks related to the learners’ daily lives. In addition, students make conjectures and prove hypotheses through hands-on activities (Osman and Kriek, 2021). The PjBL key observations of LOTPBL are expected to yield data about the extent to which students are engaged through PjBL to acquire competencies such as knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values.

The study was also guided by the Theory of Change (ToC; Reinholz and Andrews, 2020). The ToC is a wide-ranging comprehension of how and why a desired change should happen in a particular context. This theory is useful in understanding teachers’ classroom practices and provides a framework for considering how teachers can be supported to improve their teaching practices. Through the teaching experiment, the participant teacher was given a one-day training and was guided by the researcher to effectively apply PjBL. The LOTPBL was used to assess the teachers’ effectiveness in applying PjBL principles while teaching Mathematics.

Thirty classroom observations were conducted using a LOTPBL to assess the extent to which the teacher adhered to 25 PjBL key observations. These scores were also calculated in percentages. The obtained results are presented in tables. Results were analyzed using descriptive frequencies and percentages. In addition, inferential statistics such as t-tests were calculated to compare means scores of applying PjBL before and after the intervention.

Emphasizing on “occurrence” option of KOs, an improvement was observed for many KOs. For instance, an improvement was found in certain KOs such as the teacher acting more as a facilitator and students increasingly using hands-on materials (both moved from 30 to 100%). The improvement can be attributed to the positive influence of the intervention (KO 5 and 17). The teacher followed the training offered and received clear guidance on implementing core project-based learning (PjBL) practices. The notable gains were also found in KOs related to student ownership, teamwork, and reflective project alignment (KOs 3, 4, and 8) with a move from 22 to 73%, from 28 to 93%, and from 27 to 78%, respectively. These findings indicate that the intervention helped foster a more participatory and project-aligned classroom environment.

However, the lack of improvement was identified in KOs tied to a drop in students using diverse information sources (KO 7), Students showing critical and creative thinking to address the project challenges (KO 14), and Students reflecting on their learning process, challenges, and improvements (KO 19) moved from 10 to 33%, from 12 to 40%, and 16 to 53%, respectively. It is suggested that these aspects were not sufficiently addressed or supported during the intervention. No improvement at all was observed for KO 18 regarding the student’s use of online platforms or software during project implementation (0% both during and after intervention). One possible reason for this decline could be that the intervention emphasized surface-level engagement (e.g., facilitating activities or using hands-on materials) but did not sufficiently develop deeper learning strategies, such as research skills and structured reflection. Another factor might be limited time or resources during implementation, causing teachers to focus more on visible project tasks. These results highlight the need for further support in helping teachers embed inquiry-based learning and self-assessment routines into their daily teaching practices.

The general observation of the results presented in Figure 4 shows that in the first phase of observation, the participant teacher’s adherence to PjBL key observations was fairly good, with an average moving from 21 to 70% during and after intervention, respectively. The intervention seems to have effectively emphasized student-centered methods and active learning strategies. These results show the teacher will shift from traditional instruction toward facilitation. The teacher encouraged student engagement in tangible, collaborative project activities.

For a deep analysis, 25 KOs were grouped under components, formulated based on PjBL key principles (Abidin et al., 2020). Thus, nine components were generated. The analysis was also conducted across nine components. These components are:

(i) Project initiation [1, 2, 3], (ii) Student-centered learning [4, 5], (iii) Inquiry and research [6, 7], (iv) Collaboration [8, 9, 10], (v) Application of knowledge and skills [11, 12], (vi) Creativity and innovation [13,14,15], (vii) Use of instructional materials [16,17,18], (viii) Reflection and feedback [19, 20], and (ix) Authentic Assessment [21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. The presented results in this section show the average occurrence of these components throughout the 30 observed lessons during and after the intervention.

Figure 5 reports the average of the teacher’s adherence to PjBL lesson components. The results from the study show an increase in the teacher’s adherence to 9 components expected to be considered in the lesson. A significant increase was observed in teachers initiating the project, the student-centered learning, collaboration, and the use of resources with an increase from 16 to 24, from 16 to 30, from 20 to 26, and from 14 to 30, respectively. The improvement in key components of project-based learning indicates the effectiveness of the intervention. The teacher’s improvement in initiating the project suggests a clear instructional focus. The increase in use of instructional materials and collaborative learning indicates a move from passive learning to more autonomous and more engaged learning.

The inferential statistics t-test was used to compare score differences in teachers’ abilities to cope with PjBL principles before and after the intervention. See Table 1.

The results from the t-test results analysis revealed a statistically significant improvement in teachers’ skills to apply nine key components of project-based learning (PBL) after the intervention. The mean scores occurrence of PBL components increased from 54.8 to 75.6% before and after the intervention, respectively. These results indicate a notable enhancement in the implementation of strategies such as project initiation, student-centered learning, collaboration, and authentic assessment during instructions. The computed t-statistic of −3.38 with a two-tailed p-value of 0.0096 (p < 0.05) confirms that this improvement is statistically significant. However, a low Pearson correlation (0.0879) suggests a limited linear relationship between paired observations. The overall findings strongly suggest that the intervention had a positive effect on teacher’s integration of PBL components during observed lessons.

The analysis was also conducted to see how individual lessons were taught across all 25 key observations during and after the intervention. The observed lessons are 60 (30 during and 30 after intervention). Figure 3 generates the number of the key observations adhered to out of 25 key observations.

Figure 6 shows 30 lessons observed across 25 key observations necessary for each lesson. The general observation is that observed key observations have increased after the intervention compared to observed key observations during the intervention. At least 7 out of 25 key observations were observed across the 30 lessons observed. The majority of key observations were observed for lessons 11, 18, 22, 26, 29, and 30, with 20 and 23, 15 and 22, 22 and 22, 15 and 22, 20 and 23, and 22 and 22 out of 25 key observations both during and after intervention, respectively. Increased from Lesson One to Lesson 30 during and after the intervention. The average of all observed key observations for all 30 observed lessons is 13 out of 25 during the intervention and 18 out of 25 after the intervention, respectively. The results indicate a progressive improvement in incorporating project-based learning during and after the intervention. These results suggest that the intervention positively impacts the teacher’s adherence to the PjBL framework.

The inferential statistics (t-test) was also calculated to compare the score mean difference in teachers delivering lessons before and after the intervention. See Table 2.

The t-test results from Table 2 indicate a statistically significant improvement in project-based learning (PBL) lessons after the intervention. The mean score increased from 44.89 to 61.56 before and after the intervention, respectively. The calculated t-statistic of −9.85 is far greater than the critical value (−2.0452) in absolute terms. The p-value is 0.0000 (p < 0.05), indicating that the difference in means is statistically significant. In addition, the high Pearson correlation (0.7463) between the paired scores suggests a strong positive relationship. The correlation indicates that the changes were consistently observed across participants. The overall intervention appears to have had a substantial and reliable positive impact on the quality or effectiveness of PjBL lessons.

With 25 key observations of the LOTPBL, it was found that the tool has the potential to determine whether the observed learning was either active or passive. These two teaching and learning aspects also inform the extent to which the CBC is being implemented. Similarly, different scholars have developed tools which can be used to assess learning instructions while implementing CBC curriculum. For instance, Smith et al. (2013) developed a Classroom Observation Protocol for Undergraduate STEM (COPUS). The tool comprises 25 codes that show instructors’ and students’ activities at intervals. With this tool was also found reliable to the extent students to which students are engaged. The tool provides data about whether the instruction was either learner-centered or teacher-centered. Similarly, Stearns et al. (2012) developed a Teacher Observation Instrument for PjBL Instruction. The tool is composed of KOs assessing how the teacher facilitates PjBL, students’ participation, the availability and students’ use of resources, assessment, and student engagement. The LOTPBL will be used to complement data provided by existing tools.

The majority of PjBL components were scored highly after the intervention. The increase may due to due to the continuous support provided by the researcher through teaching experiments, the teacher’s interest in applying PjBL, and the use of instructional materials. Integrating project-based learning in mathematics education has brought significant attention to educational research globally since this teaching strategy strengthened students’ problem-solving and critical-thinking skills (Zhang and Ma, 2023). It is the reason why Morrison et al. (2021) advocate for continuous professional development to enhance teachers’ adoption of innovative teaching strategies. Through the LOTPL, mathematics teachers should change the way they teach and view it as anticipated by the Theory of Changed on which the study is based (Reinholz and Andrews, 2020). The results suggest that PjBL empowers teachers to improve their instructions for a more active learning environment.

Teacher’s perceptions during the interview explain why the teacher has improved the teaching practices over time. The teacher claimed that professional growth was enhanced. The teacher witnessed that mathematics could be applied beyond the classroom. The teacher discussed knowledge and skills gained during and after being supported to implement PjBL. The teacher argued that the support provided by the researcher enhanced the skills and ability to apply the new teaching approach, and became confident progressively. The participant’s teacher argued, “Before, I was not aware of PjBL. I could not understand how to teach mathematics lessons through project-based learning. Today, I understand all about PjBL. I am confident. I can now explain to the students how the lesson will be conducted through PjBL (Interview: 17th February 2025).”

The strong interest in PjBL expressed by teachers informs positive insights indicating the teacher’s awareness of the relevance of PjBL in enhancing students’ understanding and skills development. Similarly, Palmer (2006) argued that when teachers are both interested in and confident about a teaching method, they are more likely to implement it effectively and consistently. These perceptions changed the participant teaching practices by giving students hands-on activities and activities involving students to apply concepts learned outside the classroom. Mathematics should be viewed as a tool used to solve different real-world problems.

The teacher further explained that the improvement in teaching practices was due to the provision of sufficient instructional materials. By using instructional materials, the students’ conceptual understanding increased. The teacher argued: “At the beginning, it was somehow difficult because we did not have watches to use during reading time. However, as we progressed, students understood the content because they were using watches. The lesson was generally easy to deliver (Interview: 17th February 2025).” Before the intervention, the teacher used to come into class only with a book and pieces of chalk. Mathematics abstract concepts were explained without being applied in students’ real context. The teacher observed that students who are directly involved in hands-on activities easily remember the content. This participatory learning model also helped the teacher deliver lessons more efficiently since students were more attentive and actively involved in different tasks.

The teacher views the teaching method as positively influencing effective teaching, engaging lessons, and enhancing conceptual understanding. The attribute of PjBL may have motivated the teacher to apply this teaching practice. Indeed, Yang et al. (2021) and Safitri (2024) argued that hands-on approaches in PjBL, enhance the teaching and learning through motivating students to explore, experiment, and discover, fostering greater engagement. Researchers such as Karan and Brown (2022) and Ningsih et al. (2020) highlighted that PjBL fosters deeper understanding by allowing students to apply classroom knowledge in authentic contexts. In addition, Studies by Haatainen and Aksela (2021) argued that PjBL promotes active learning by turning abstract concepts into tangible experiences.

The study was conducted following the gap found in the lack of tools appropriate to assess the PjBL-led instructions. The findings from this study suggest that the LOTPBL is a valid and reliable tool for assessing project-based learning within the Rwandan competence-based curriculum. The tool has a strong reliability (Kappa = 0.8) demonstrating its effectiveness in capturing the implementation of PjBL showing a promise for generalizability. However, its application to other educational systems and cultural contexts would require careful adaptation in terms of curriculum frameworks, pedagogical norms, and teacher training approaches. Therefore, LOTPBL may need contextual adjustments and re-validation to ensure cultural relevance and effectiveness in diverse settings. Nonetheless, the tool holds significant potential for supporting the global shift toward competency-based and active learning methodologies.

The study has limitations such as employing one participant teacher, the observer’s bias, and a short period of training. While the tool is described as adaptable to other contexts, its effectiveness and relevance in different cultural, curricular, or instructional settings were not empirically tested. These limitations leave questions about its applicability beyond the original study environment. Further research such as examining long-term changes in student outcomes due to the use of LOTPBL and exploring how the tool can be adapted for different educational systems globally should be conducted. Further improvements or revisions of the tool are anticipated based on users or researchers’ observations.

The LOTPBL can be used in the following modes: