The importance of contact between adult children and their parents to the children's wellbeing is well established among young adults (Fingerman et al., 2020). Indeed, young adulthood is an important developmental period where one's well-being is dependent on both acquisition of independence and supportive relatedness to parents (Cohrdes et al., 2023), marking this life stage as an interesting venture point to explore differential modes of contact with parents and their implications for the wellbeing of young adults. However, the differential significance of various contact modes with parents to the wellbeing of adult children in young adulthood has not been sufficiently addressed. The current study aimed to fill this gap while examining the contribution of various contact modes between adult children and their parents (phone, in-person, or digital) to the children's emotional closeness to parents and to their life satisfaction. The strength of this study is that it includes the collection of cross-cultural data gathered from adult children from both Israel and Germany. Israel is a relatively young country that features a unique blend of traditional Jewish family values and norms alongside modern features (Bar-Tur et al., 2018). Israel has the highest fertility rate per-woman among the OECD countries (OECD, 2019). Germany is an older, more secular society with nearly one-third of German citizens reporting no religious affiliation, and is among the lowest fertility-rate-countries in the OECD countries (OECD, 2019).

Adult children's relationships with their parents are among the most crucial relationships for life-long emotional bonds (Fingerman et al., 2020; Martinez-Escudero et al., 2020; Merz et al., 2008; Suitor et al., 2022). Modern technology provides communication tools that enable more social interaction than in past years, allowing adult children to choose how to connect with their parents. The increase in contact frequency also reflects changes in social and family trends that highlight greater connectedness and more frequent communication (Fingerman et al., 2020). Geographical proximity has thus become a less crucial factor in sustaining emotional closeness between adult children and their parents. Frequency and modes of contact may vary according to needs, characteristics, and relationship quality (Chaie et al., 2020). Differences in communication modes may be linked to differences in the affective qualities of the relationship between adult children and their parents, which may be positive, ambivalent, or conflicted. It follows that frequent contact between adult children and their parents can be expected to impact their respective moods and stress levels (Birditt et al., 2017; Fingerman et al., 2012, 2020).

Today's contact rates between adult children and their parents are high compared to past years. Modes of contact can be in person, by telephone, or by text (Fingerman et al., 2016b, 2020). Findings from the Health, Aging, and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) survey revealed that nearly 80% of adult children living apart from their parents have at least a weekly contact with them, and more than two thirds have several weekly contacts (Szydlik, 2016). While contact frequency may be associated with greater emotional closeness (Fingerman et al., 2012), some studies found that the frequency of contact in families may not directly reflect emotional closeness (Fingerman et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2012; Van Gaalen and Dykstra, 2006). These mixed findings may be explained by parents' and adult children's individual differences, relationship quality, and their respective inclinations to use specific modes of contact (Chaie et al., 2020; Norris et al., 2003).

Students report more frequent contact and greater involvement with their parents than non-students of a similar age. Moreover, students are also more likely to speak with parents by telephone and in person than non-students and receive more emotional support from their parents than do non-students, thus contributing to their life satisfaction (Fingerman et al., 2012). Telephone contact may supplement and compensate for less frequent in-person contact when students live far from their parents (Attias-Donfut and Wolff, 2000; Fingerman et al., 2012, 2016b).

Students who reported more frequent telephone conversations with their parents also reported more satisfying, intimate, and supportive relationships with them (Gentzler et al., 2011). In contrast, students who reported more frequent technology-based communication with their parents reported higher levels of loneliness and attachment anxiety (Ramsey et al., 2013).

Research on the association between the type of communication technology and the nature of the personal relationship indicated that communication methods that included both verbal and non-verbal cues (in-person contact as well as telephone and video calls) were positively associated with higher overall relationship satisfaction and life satisfaction (Goodman-Deane et al., 2016). Conversely, contact methods offering fewer cues, such as text messaging, were negatively associated with both relationship satisfaction and life satisfaction (Goodman-Deane et al., 2016). However, studies examining the impact of communication technologies on wellbeing revealed mixed findings, such that some studies suggested that technology use was associated positively with wellbeing and relationship quality (Grieve et al., 2013; Kraut et al., 2002; Wang and Wang, 2011). It seems, then, that modern technology's effect on individuals' relationship quality and life satisfaction depends on the communication mode, the person's age, and with whom they want to be in contact. People's choices tend to be guided at least partly by assessments of expected value (Kumar and Epley, 2021).

Another study found that telephone-use satisfies the need for companionship, closeness, and care more than other media (Ramirez et al., 2008). Telephone use tends to occur within close relationships such as families, romantic couples, and friends (Jin and Park, 2010; Jin and Pena, 2010; Utz, 2007). A person's voice has been shown to reveal the human-like attributes of interpersonal warmth and intellectual competence that are lacking in digital text communication (Schroeder and Epley, 2015, 2016; Schroeder et al., 2017), In a field experiment, Kumar and Epley (2021) asked participants to reconnect with an old friend via phone or email. Results indicated that voice-based interactions (phone, video chat, and voice chat) were associated with stronger social bonds than text-based interactions (email, text chat), suggesting that the human voice has the potential to evoke a sense of connection with another person and better understanding. Thus, the closer people feel to the person they want to communicate with, the more likely they would choose synchronic, voice-based communication (Kumar and Epley, 2020).

Decisions about how to interact with others were found to be guided partly by the expected outcomes of the interaction: Voice-based calls vs. voiceless text-based messages may have uniquely desirable effects on the quality of the relationship (Kumar and Epley, 2021). Phone calls, thus, could lead to a stronger sense of connection. Moreover, live voice-based interaction enables more responsiveness than text chat and thus, contributes more to one's feeling of connectedness with another person. In the same vein, social vocalizations have been found to release oxytocin in humans (Seltzer et al., 2010). Thus, the human voice may provide a crucial cue for generating the wellbeing that comes from a positive social connection (Kumar and Epley, 2020).

The chosen modes of contact between adult children and their parents as well as their association with the children's relationship quality and wellbeing may, however, vary by age and characteristics of the children and the parents, such as parents' health difficulties and gender (Barca et al., 2014; Chaie et al., 2020; Gilligan et al., 2022). Adult children's contact with their parents may be relatively more important to their wellbeing when they are younger. For example, adolescents encountering a stressful event who called their mothers and heard their mother's voice were calmer and more relaxed than those who texted with their mothers (Seltzer et al., 2012). The same has been reported regarding young adult students (Gentzler et al., 2011).

Synchronic live-voice contact, such as telephone calls, carry certain benefits to relationships: Even when conducted across geographically remote locations, online conversations with parents can offer greater intimacy than face-to-face meetings. Face-to-face encounters may not lead to one-to-one contact. It often involves some activities or other family members thus impeding private conversations between adult children and their parents and therefore may highlight ambivalent aspects of the relationship (Fingerman et al., 2012). Given the noted qualities of telephone contact, we assumed that adult children's frequency of telephone contact with their parents would be associated with greater emotional closeness with parents than in-person and digital contact. We also assumed that ratings by adult children of their emotional closeness with their parents would, in turn, be associated with higher life satisfaction among the adult children. Due to the universal nature of the strong bond between adult children and their parents (e.g., Bar-Tur et al., 2018), we assumed that the association between frequency of contact, emotional closeness, and the adult children's life satisfaction would be similar across the examined samples, i.e., the Israeli and German samples.

The current study examined the hypothesized associations in both Israel and Germany to enhance ecological validity by comparing two countries that represent distinct cultural contexts along the familistic-individualistic spectrum, a dimension that may play a central role in shaping family relations (Bar-Tur et al., 2018; Dykstra and Fokkema, 2011). Building on previous research examining adult children's contact frequency with their parents across Germany, Hong Kong, Korea, and the United States (Fingerman et al., 2016a), the current study aimed to extend this comparison to the Israeli cultural context. Israel, due to its small geographic size, higher fertility rate, and stronger adherence to religious norms, is generally considered as family-oriented society. In such contexts, co-residence or geographical proximity, frequent intergenerational contact, and strong family obligation norms are more common compared to Germany (Bar-Tur et al., 2018; Dykstra and Fokkema, 2011; OECD, 2019). In contrast, Germany is often described as more individualistic or autonomous, characterized by lower fertility rates, weaker adherence to religious affiliation, greater geographical distance between family members, less frequent intergenerational contact, and fewer exchanges of support among families (Bar-Tur et al., 2018; Dykstra and Fokkema, 2011; OECD, 2019).

The present study examined the associations among contact modes with parents, emotional closeness, and the adult children's life satisfaction in German and Israeli student samples, collected during 2010-2011 in Germany and during 2013-2014 in Israel. Although the asymmetry in data collection periods may limit the comparability of the samples, comparing these two samples allowed us to contrast the two different cultural contexts by examining whether the hypothesized associations hold in both family-oriented and individualistic societies. Furthermore, the current study's period (2010-2014) preceded the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent surge in technology use within families, such as the increased adoption of video calls (Nowland et al., 2024). The current examination may therefore serve as a historical baseline for understanding the contribution of relatively stable contact modes, such as phone contact, to young adults' emotional closeness and life satisfaction, in comparison to more time-sensitive practices, such as text messaging and electronic mail.

Descriptive statistics of the study variables (contact variables with mothers and fathers, emotional closeness with mothers and fathers, and life satisfaction of the adult child in each of the samples) are presented in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, Israeli, compared to German, participants reported more frequent in-person, telephone and digital contact with their mothers and fathers with medium to large effect sizes. Moreover, Israeli participants reported higher emotional closeness with their mothers, as compared to German participants with a small effect size. No significant difference was found between Israeli and German participants regarding their emotional closeness with their fathers. Lastly, Israeli participants reported on higher life satisfaction compared to the German participants with a small effect size.

This study explored the relationship between adult children and their parents in Germany and Israel by examining the frequencies of three modes of contact: in-person, phone, and digital. Specifically, we studied the respective contribution that each of the modes made to the adult children's life satisfaction as a function of their emotional closeness with their parents.

The models examining the contribution of the three modes of contact to life satisfaction through emotional closeness were found suitable in both countries, suggesting that the frequency of contact of adult children with their parents is associated with emotional closeness with the parents, and is therefore pertinent to adult children's life satisfaction. The study further elaborated on the respective contributions of the three modes of contact to the emotional closeness of adult children with their parents. In both the Israeli and German samples, phone contact was positively associated with emotional closeness between the adult children and their parents with medium to strong effect sizes. This is consistent with previous studies (Gentzler et al., 2011; Ramsey et al., 2013). Positive, but weak associations were found between in-person contact with mothers and fathers and emotional closeness in the Israeli sample, unlike in the German sample, where no such associations were found. As for digital contact, weak positive associations were found between frequency of digital contact with mothers and fathers and emotional closeness in the German sample, unlike the Israeli sample, where no such associations were found.

Regarding emotional closeness and its association with life satisfaction, positive associations were found between emotional closeness with fathers and adult children's life satisfaction for both the Israeli and German samples with small to medium effect sizes. However, only in the German sample did this association prove significant with mothers, with a small effect size. This absence of a significant association in the Israeli sample may be due to cultural differences so that emotional closeness with parents in Israel may be strong and independent of other personal characteristics such as the adult child's life satisfaction. Indeed, a previous study reported on higher emotional closeness between adult children and their mothers in Israel than in Germany (Bar-Tur et al., 2018). The lack of association between emotional closeness with mothers and adult children's life satisfaction in Israel may also reflect the ambivalence and conflict that can characterize emotionally close relationships (Fingerman et al., 2012). Gender differences in these relationships may play a role, such that the relationships with mothers may be more robust and less affected by parents' or adult children's personal characteristics (Chaie et al., 2020). Studies have reported that adult children tend to feel closer and more attached to their mothers than to their fathers (Golish, 2000) and that adult children's contact with mothers is more frequent than with their fathers (Birditt et al., 2009; Fingerman et al., 2012).

Hypothesis 3 predicted differences in the associations of the three modes of contact. Specifically, phone contact with parents was hypothesized to be associated with stronger adult child-parent emotional closeness than in-person and digital contact. The findings revealed that both German and Israeli adult children's phone contact with their mothers and fathers was indeed a stronger contributor to emotional closeness than in-person and digital contact with them. Moreover, Israeli adult children's in-person contact was found to be a stronger contributor to emotional closeness than digital contact with their fathers only. No other differences were found between the associations of digital, phone, and in-person contact modes with emotional closeness in the German sample.

The findings for both samples regarding the differences between the three modes of contact confirmed the significant contribution of phone contact to emotional closeness. This is consistent with reports that phone contact is a preferred and more beneficial mode of communication in intimate relationships in general (Kumar and Epley, 2020, 2021), and in particular, between adult children and their parents (Gentzler et al., 2011; Ramsey et al., 2013; Seltzer et al., 2012).

As suggested by these studies, adult children appear to interact more freely in phone communication and maintain a better flow of conversation with their parents than when meeting them in person or communicating by text messages. By responding to what they hear from their parents via the telephone, they may feel more “in sync” than in an asynchronous text chat, and hence, more connected. When there are positive and close relationships, adult children may initiate more frequent interaction with their parents via the phone. Telephone contact is more discretionary, and adult children can choose when and from where to communicate with their parents. It may be more flexible and easier to schedule than video calls because one may be able to converse with others while walking, running, involved in other tasks, or in bed without video. Personal contacts involving face-to-face meetings are often associated with family gatherings involving other family members or other people so that the opportunity for discussion of personal issues may be more limited than that created by phone contact. When adult children live closer to their parents, visiting may be more obligatory than enjoyable (Chaie et al., 2020). In-person meetings may impose more demands on adult children such that the children may find themselves unable to determine meeting duration or may find it difficult to extricate themselves from problematic encounters.

The weak associations of digital contact with emotional closeness found in the present study may be explained by the fact that digital contact is an indirect and less personal form of communication that does not offer immediate feedback. Indeed, a previous finding showed that young adults invested efforts to limit smartphone use for work in order to be more present with their families (Schuster et al., 2023), such that digital contact seems less personal and more associated to work. Another study showed that digital contact between young adults and their extended families was present regardless of the degree of closeness in these relationships, suggesting that digital contact does not promote closeness in families (Hessel, 2023). Digital textual communication may make it difficult to transmit and receive emotional reactions as visual and aural cues are absent. Some parents may also lack access or mastery of digital communication, leaving phone communication as the only remote option.

The present findings, which indicate that phone contact was more strongly associated with young adult's emotional closeness to their parents than digital contact, should be interpreted in light of the period during which the data were collected. This study took place between 2010 and 2014, before the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent rise in technology-mediated communication within families (Nowland et al., 2024). Accordingly, these findings may suggest that relatively stable and established forms of contact, such as phone communication, played a particularly significant role in fostering emotional closeness within families, compared to newer, evolving digital contact modes. Future studies using contemporary samples are needed to examine whether these patterns persist in the current technological and social context.

While our study found a positive association between the frequency of digital contact with both parents and emotional closeness in Germany, no such association was found in Israel. Whereas digital contact may be preferred in Germany, in Israel, a direct contact with parents, such as telephone calls, is favored (Bar-Tur et al., 2018; Lang and Rohr, 2012).

This may suggest that when there are strong emotional bonds between adult children and their parents, they feel more comfortable communicating by telephone than through text. As for German adult children and their parents, it seems that digital contact may be more acceptable as a mode of communication. The larger physical distances, and higher tendency of adult children to live apart of their parents in Germany, may explain this finding. In comparison to Israel, it seems that digital communication may be perceived by adult children in Germany as less of an intrusion upon their autonomy and privacy therefore allowing precise and efficient communication.

Furthermore, the relatively stronger association between digital contact and emotional closeness in Germany compared to Israel, may be explained by cultural differences between the two countries. Despite considerable individual variation in adherence to family-oriented norms within each country, Germany is often characterized as an individualistic or autonomous society, whereas Israel is typically described as a family-oriented and traditional society marked by high levels of familial involvement (Bar-Tur et al., 2018; Dykstra and Fokkema, 2011). These cultural orientations may, at least in part, account for the greater tendency of German students to live separately from their parents compared to Israeli students. This pattern was evident in the present findings, in which 8% of the German participants lived with their parents compared to 54.3% in the Israeli sample. Previous reports similarly show that approximately 86% of young adults in Israel live with their parents (Kahan-Strawczynski et al., 2016), compared to only about 15-20% in Germany (Sompolska-Rzechuła and Kurdyś-Kujawska, 2022). Living apart from parents may increase reliance on digital media to maintain emotional closeness and compensate for physical distance. Indeed, previous research has shown that following the transition to college, students tend to increase their digital communication while reducing face-to-face interactions with their home friends (Kempnich et al., 2024).

The present findings regarding the contribution of contact modes to emotional closeness between young adults and their parents can be interpreted in light of the framework of platformization (Sefton-Green et al., 2025). This contemporary perspective emphasizes that communication platforms not only enable and mediate family connections but also shape and constrain how communication unfolds within families, influencing the use and meaning of all contact modes. Although the current study reflects a historical snapshot collected prior to the widespread expansion of technology-based family communication (Nowland et al., 2024), it nevertheless aligns with the notion of platformization by suggesting that all examined contact modes (in-person, phone, and digital) operate within broader platformized conditions that may shape how family relationships are maintained and how emotional closeness is experienced. Overall, this study supports previous reports revealing the importance of maintaining long-term emotional closeness between adult children and parents (Bar-Tur et al., 2018, 2019; Fingerman et al., 2020). Our findings emphasized that, regardless of cultural, epochal or societal characteristics, emotional closeness in the parent-child relationship is a constant in human life and critical to adult children's wellbeing, alongside their need for individuation and autonomy. The study further supports the importance of maintaining the adult child-parent relationship, regardless of contact mode, as maintaining the relationship can contribute to adult children's life satisfaction, and more frequent contact may promote this goal. The importance of this study is that it highlights the efficacy of traditional, synchronic telephone contact between adult children and their parents, in comparison to in-person and more modern modes of text communication.

Whereas social and cultural factors may explain some of the differences we found between the two nations (Bar-Tur et al., 2018; Kohli, 1999; Kohli et al., 2010), these differences were minor, with more similarities than disparities. Moreover, emotional closeness appears to comprise a significant component in the relationships of adult children and their parents in Germany and Israel. Our finding that phone communication was the most prominent contact mode, which had the strongest association with emotional closeness may come as a surprise in era of digital innovation. Irrespective of communication mode and geographical proximity, an on-going contact between adult children and their parents may be fundamental to enhanced emotional closeness and life satisfaction.