Migration constitutes a fundamental process of social and economic transformation. It is a phenomenon that currently shapes both national and international agendas across European countries (United Nations, 2025; United Nations, 1959). In recent years, new migration flows from the Global South have led to a significant increase in the number of unaccompanied foreign minors (UFM), who primarily originate from countries experiencing armed conflict, oppression, human rights violations, and precarious living conditions. In response to this situation, migration policies have evolved to include new forms of identification, reception, and protection for these individuals (Aguado-Moralejo et al., 2019; Becker Herbst et al., 2018; Delgado-Baena et al., 2022; Díez-Bermejo et al., 2021; Vela-Jiménez et al., 2022; Wise, 2023; López-Ulla, 2022).

UFM are understood as children and adolescents under the age of 18 who are outside their country of origin without the company of their parents or a legal guardian. In most cases, their migration is motivated by the need to escape extreme poverty, exploitation, or structural violence (ACCEM, 2025; United Nations, 2025; Save The Children, 2019; Olivares-García et al., 2024). This group typically shares the following characteristics: (a) they are between 14 and 17 years old; (b) the majority are male; (c) they have limited prior schooling; (d) they contribute economically to their families of origin; (e) they have work experience in informal sectors; and (f) they lack the necessary training to access the labor market legally and safely.

From a theoretical perspective, the literature has drawn upon a range of approaches. Resilience theory has been widely employed to understand how these minors develop personal and social resources to cope with adversity (Becker Herbst et al., 2018). Other researchers have adopted the capability approach (Van Raemdock et al., 2022), which analyses how institutional conditions facilitate or restrict their educational autonomy. Socio-constructivist and connectivist frameworks have also been applied to examine digital inclusion and personal learning environments (Olmedo-Moreno et al., 2020, 2021; Parra-González et al., 2021; Expósito-López et al., 2019).

From an educational standpoint, empirical studies have examined the educational trajectories of UFM, highlighting both structural barriers and resilience factors that support their integration. For example, Belmonte et al. (2019) documented a lack of intercultural inclusion strategies within the Spanish education system. Similarly, Fernández-Simo et al. (2022) identified effective socio-educational interventions during the transition to adulthood. Sala (2021) explored how teachers in the UK foster a sense of belonging among unaccompanied asylum-seeking minors. These studies underscore the need to implement context-sensitive pedagogical practices and create emotionally secure learning environments.

In the same vein, Escarbajal et al. (2023) examined social perceptions of UFM in the Region of Murcia, identifying key factors for their inclusion such as inter-institutional coordination and emotional support. Olivares-García et al. (2023) emphasized the critical role of teachers in helping minors rebuild their life projects. Furthermore, Gómez-Vicario et al. (2023) conducted a systematic review covering 2012 to 2022, which highlighted the need to strengthen teachers’ intercultural competencies and integrate specific curricular measures to address cultural diversity.

Other studies have developed tools to rigorously analyze this reality. Martínez-Martínez et al. (2019), Tomé-Fernández et al. (2020) and Serrano-García et al. (2024) created psychometric instruments to assess personal learning environments and psychosocial factors related to academic achievement among UFM. Parra-González et al. (2021) examined the relationship between educational level and digital competence development, emphasizing the importance of designing personalized and connective learning environments tailored to the actual needs of this population.

Given the structural limitations of the system, education professionals play a crucial role in ensuring the well-being and comprehensive development of these vulnerable minors. The implementation of effective socio-educational strategies can mitigate the impact of bureaucratic barriers that hinder their transition to adulthood. However, professionals often face a dual challenge: on the one hand, they are committed to safeguarding the interests of minors and promoting their inclusion; on the other, they are bound by regulations that frequently obstruct these goals (Alonso-Bello et al., 2020; Delgado-Baena et al., 2022; Díez-Bermejo et al., 2021; Fernández-Simo et al., 2022; Van Raemdock et al., 2022).

In many cases, interventions do not adequately address the real needs of these minors, as they are based on approaches disconnected from their lived realities. Public policies are often formulated in social contexts dominated by hostile discourses toward migrant children, and certain governmental practices act as barriers to their transition to adulthood, ultimately impeding full inclusion (Allsopp and Chase, 2017; Barbulescu and Grugel, 2016; Deckert, 2016; Vives, 2020).

In this complex scenario, schools and education professionals emerge as key agents and spaces of intervention. They must develop strategies tailored to the specific realities of these minors, enabling those in disadvantaged areas to overcome obstacles throughout their schooling and during the transition to adulthood. As such, professional commitment is essential, often representing the only consistent human support available to this population (Humphris and Sigona, 2017; Meloni, 2019). This role remains fundamental (Humphris and Sigona, 2017), despite evidence suggesting that current social policy planning exhibits shortcomings from a socio-educational perspective (Fernández-Simo et al., 2022). Social inclusion processes are complex and idiosyncratic. If not adequately addressed, these youths risk falling into situations of social exclusion, which may lead to frustration, insecurity, and disruptions in their life trajectories (Alonso-Bello et al., 2020; Arnau-Sabatés and Gilligan, 2015).

Therefore, this group requires the guidance of professionals (teachers, social educators, psychologists, and others) to better understand themselves, identify their strengths, and explore available educational and professional opportunities. Achieving their goals and fostering integration in the host country largely depends on constructing, developing, and managing their personal learning environments, which are crucial to promoting autonomy and inclusion (Parra-González et al., 2021). It is essential that professionals support UFM in developing a sense of belonging within the spaces they inhabit daily, as this promotes academic achievement, self-confidence, and the formation of strong support networks (Sala, 2021).

Despite the abundance of conceptual and empirical contributions, there remains a lack of critical connection between the theoretical frameworks employed. Their potential complementarities, tensions, or intersections are rarely examined, which limits their capacity to coherently inform both public policy and educational practice. This study addresses this gap through a bibliometric analysis aimed at identifying the most influential authors, institutions, and both dominant and emerging theoretical paradigms in the field of UFM and education.

In light of the above, the general aim of this study is to examine the scientific literature related to UFM in the field of education, in order to understand the evolution of academic knowledge and provide a solid foundation for future research. The following specific objectives (SO) are proposed:

SO1: To explore the existing scientific production on UFM in education from an international perspective.

SO2: To analyze the most prolific authors and research groups in this field at the international level.

SO3: To identify the most influential institutions in this area of study.

SO4: To determine the academic journals that most frequently publish research on this topic and assess their quality.

SO5: To examine the key terms currently used in the educational field in relation to this population.

This leads to the following research question guiding the study: What is the current state of international scientific production on unaccompanied foreign minors in the field of education?

This research is based on a bibliometric analysis, which allows us to examine the existing international scientific production on UFM in the field of education. This methodological approach, widely recognized for its ability to identify patterns and trends in the scientific literature (Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017), is applied through the use of various indicators, such as the number of publications per year, the identification of the most prolific authors and working groups (Van Eck and Waltman, 2010), the most influential institutions in the field, the journals that publish the most research related to this topic, among others. In the context of education and migration, recent studies (Suárez-Orozco et al., 2019; Torrado et al., 2022) have highlighted the importance of analyzing academic production to better understand the challenges and opportunities faced by UFM in education.

This section presents the results obtained, organized according to the five specific objectives set out in this study.

The results reveal that scientific production on UFM in the educational sphere remains incipient, highlighting a notable epistemic and social invisibilization of this population, despite their growing presence in European school contexts (Becker Herbst et al., 2018; United Nations, 2025). This gap between the scale of the phenomenon and its scarce representation in academic literature has already been pointed out by authors such as Escarbajal et al. (2023), who warn that academic discourse does not always align with the real challenges faced by professionals in educational and social contexts. Similar tensions are evident in other European contexts such as Italy, where institutional fragilities coexist with the capacity for autonomy developed by minors during their transition through the system (Argento et al., 2024).

The concentration of authors and institutions identified in this study, consistent with Lotka’s Law, suggests that the field remains at an early stage of consolidation. However, such concentration also implies a limited diversity of perspectives and experiences, which restricts a plural understanding of the migratory phenomenon. As Fernández-Simo et al. (2022) note, it is necessary to foster interdisciplinary and collaborative approaches to develop effective educational responses during the transition to adulthood. The low level of collaboration among research groups, as evidenced by this bibliometric analysis, may hinder these efforts and diminish the transformative potential of scientific knowledge.

Moreover, the application of Bradford’s Law indicates that research on UFM in the educational domain is channeled through a small number of academic journals, many of which are high-impact (Q1 and Q2), thereby ensuring the methodological and theoretical quality of the studies, as observed in the systematic review by Gómez-Vicario et al. (2023). However, such academic excellence does not always translate into practical usefulness. For instance, Belmonte et al. (2019) highlighted the lack of intercultural inclusion strategies implemented in educational centres, reflecting a mismatch between scientific output and the application of public policies. Similar conclusions can be found in Quiroga Raimúndez et al. (2023), who analyzed the evolution and protection models for UFM in Catalonia, emphasizing the gaps between legal frameworks and their actual implementation in the educational field.

From a thematic perspective, the analyzed corpus shows a predominance of studies focused on the development of digital competencies (Parra-González et al., 2021a; Parra-González et al., 2021b), the construction of a sense of belonging in school contexts (Sala, 2021), resilience in the transition to adulthood (Delgado-Baena et al., 2022), as well as the importance of emotional and professional support from teaching staff (Olivares-García et al., 2023). These lines of research are essential for understanding the protective factors that influence the life and educational trajectories of UFM.

Nevertheless, significant gaps persist, as pointed out by Escarbajal et al. (2023), given that social perceptions of UFM continue to be shaped by discourses of prejudice and criminalisation, which negatively impact their social integration. Likewise, Allsopp and Chase (2017) and Deckert (2016) warn that restrictive reception policies reproduce conditions of structural exclusion by placing these minors in contexts of legal, economic and emotional vulnerability. In the same vein, Vives (2020) argues that institutional practices often function as mechanisms of control that hinder UFM’s autonomy during their transition to adulthood. These findings are in line with those of Arrufat-Cardava and Sanz-Ponce (2020), who underline the persistent obstacles to effectively guaranteeing the right to education for these migrant minors, particularly when legal recognition does not translate into accessible and inclusive educational opportunities.

The results of the present study also highlight a weak critical connection between the theoretical frameworks employed. The fragmentation of approaches—resilience (Becker Herbst et al., 2018), the capabilities approach (Van Raemdock et al., 2022), socioconstructivism and connectivism (Olmedo-Moreno et al., 2020, 2021)—limits the capacity to generate a holistic view of these minors’ educational processes. As Fernández-Simo et al. (2022) point out, this theoretical disconnection affects both the planning of social policies and the coherence of socio-educational interventions. In this regard, Bravo and Santos-Gonzalez (2017) argue that the psychosocial and educational needs of asylum-seeking minors remain inadequately addressed in normative frameworks, thereby requiring a more comprehensive and contextualized understanding of vulnerability.

In addition, rigorous analytical tools have been developed, such as psychometric scales on personal learning environments and psychosocial factors (Martínez-Martínez et al., 2019; Tomé-Fernández et al., 2020), which must be complemented by more participatory and qualitative methodologies that allow for the direct voices of the minors themselves to be heard. Without their active participation, there is a risk of designing decontextualized or paternalistic interventions, as warned by Alonso-Bello et al. (2020) and Arnau-Sabatés and Gilligan (2015), who stress that social exclusion affects not only material conditions but also symbolic and subjective dimensions. This concern is shared by Cónsola-Párraga (2016), who insists on the need for educational responses to align with the expectations and lived experiences of UFM, through socio-educational interventions based on proximity.

Finally, as highlighted by Humphris and Sigona (2017) and Meloni (2019), the role of teachers and other education professionals is crucial to ensuring comprehensive support for these minors. Professional commitment must not be limited to instrumental or bureaucratic functions but should instead be directed toward the construction of meaningful relationships, the recognition of otherness, and the creation of safe environments. In this regard, Sala (2021) emphasizes the importance of cultivating a sense of belonging as a decisive factor for UFM’s educational success and emotional well-being. This need for structural and sustained support is reinforced by the work of Rodríguez-Rodríguez and Pérez-Montesdeoca (2022), who advocate for international comparisons to identify good practices in residential care that can inform educational policies.

The bibliometric analysis conducted allows for the extraction of four key conclusions:

1st Conclusion. The scientific literature on UFM in the educational field remains limited, underscoring the need for both the European Higher Education Area and the research community to expand their interest in addressing the challenges faced by this population, which currently receives little visibility. This literary gap highlights the multiple shortcomings, challenges, and needs that these minors encounter within the education systems of host countries.

2nd Conclusion. The presence of specialized authors in this area is scarce, with Olmedo-Moreno emerging as the most prominent and specialized figure in this line of research, a finding corroborated by Lotka’s Law (Lotka, 1926). Moreover, among the ten identified working groups, only WG4 demonstrates a high degree of interrelation and, consequently, consolidation in research on this topic. Additionally, this group is linked to the most influential institution in this field, the University of Granada.

3rd Conclusion. No specialized journals have been identified as central repositories of scientific output on immigration and education, specifically concerning UFM and education. This finding aligns with the predictions of Bradford’s Law (1934).

4th Conclusion. The scarcity of research on UFM in the educational field highlights the urgency of deepening the analysis of the realities experienced by these minors. In this regard, advancing research is essential to promoting their educational, social, and personal inclusion, thereby contributing to reducing social inequalities (SDG 10) and enhancing the quality of education for this group (SDG 4) (United Nations, 2015).