Some studies have provided evidence for the joint positive effects of grit on psychological well-being and academic outcomes (Huo, 2022). In a sample of high school Filipino students, Datu et al. (2016) concluded that perseverance of effort was associated with both optimal educational and optimal well-being results, concretely with behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, and flourishing. In a study with school students from Hong Kong and Macau, perseverance of effort was linked to better academic engagement in math and science and to more positive emotions (Datu et al., 2023). Light and Nencka (2019) indicated in a U.S. youth sample that high-ability students used to adopt more self-regulated learning practices that exploit their grit, while grit played a compensatory role among low-ability students. Among U.S. undergraduates, Bowman et al. (2015) found that effort perseverance was positively associated with academic adjustment, college grades, academic satisfaction, sense of belonging, and better faculty interactions. In the same study, both effort perseverance and interest consistency were related to less intention to change majors. In two studies with American Medicine residents, higher grit scores were associated with less burnout and greater well-being (Dam et al., 2019; Salles et al., 2014). A similar result was observed with dental students in Saudi Arabia (Al-Zain and Abdulsalam, 2022).

Furthermore, some studies have examined the mechanisms that may explain the achievement outcome associated with grit. In a sample of gifted adolescents in China, grit was linked to higher well-being through higher perceived confidence in career-related activities (Datu et al., 2022). Datu et al. (2019) pointed out that grit was associated with lower depression through its positive association with meaning in life in high school students in the Philippines. In another study, grit was indirectly related to positive emotions through social and emotional learning (Datu and Restubog, 2020). In university students from Turkey, grit (together with hope) was used as a mediator for the relationship between academic encouragement and well-being (Okur et al., 2023). In Sweden, grit was positively associated with high life satisfaction and better harmony in life and this relationship was mediated by the sense of coherence, and authenticity (Vainio and Daukantaitė, 2016). Moreover, in a sample of Korean adults, grit was positively connected with subjective well-being and the relationship was mediated by the basic needs satisfaction of competence and autonomy (Jin and Kim, 2017).

Despite the evidence collected about different indicators of psychological well-being as mediators of the grit effects on academic outcomes, more research is still needed concerning youth samples and examining other indicators of positive psychological adjustment as possible mediators and use of diverse academic outcomes. The model of Positive Youth Development (PYD) arises from a positive perspective of youth mental health (Lerner, 2005) within the Relational Developmental Systems model (Lerner et al., 2018). PYD theory presents a strength-based perspective on young people’s transition to adulthood in which positive outcomes emerge as a result of the alignment between personal (i.e., commitment to learning, positive values, positive identity and social competencies) and contextual resources (i.e., social support, constructive use of time, positive expectations, and empowerment) (Benson, 2007; Benson et al., 2006). The five-factor PYD structure has been well-validated in the literature. Lerner et al. (2011) established a 5Cs model of PYD, which differentiates five positive and interrelated indicators that nurture a better psychological well-being, i.e.: Competence (positive self-efficacy in different life domains), Confidence (positive self-worth), Connection (positive relationships with others), Character (positive internalization of social rules, and values) and Caring (sympathy and empathy toward others). Research by Lerner et al. (2014) showed that the satisfaction of the 5Cs was associated with thriving outcomes, named as Contribution to self and to their families, friends and neighbors, and their community, as well as with less risk behaviors (e.g., less substance use, delinquency and emotional problems). Thus, RDS model states that the positive developmental regulation between external assets, and personal strengths fosters the emergence of PYD, and in turn PYD relates to these positive outcomes in youth (Benson, 2007; Lerner et al., 2018). In the present study, grit is considered a personal strength related to commitment to learning that may nurture PYD. In turn, the PYD is expected to be associated with positive outcomes, such as some indicators of positive academic adjustment. Thus, PYD may play a mediating role between grit and academic adjustment.

The role of PYD as mediator between assets and positive outcomes has been examined in previous literature, such as the works by Årdal et al. (2018), Lopez-Bermudez et al. (2024) and Shek et al. (2022). Only a few studies have connected grit and PYD from an educational perspective. Buenconsejo et al. (2024) conducted a longitudinal study with Filipino adolescents. Using a cross-lagged panel model, the researchers found that grit predicted PYD dimensions but not the other way around. Specifically, perseverance of effort was related to greater Competence, Confidence and Character, whereas interest consistency had negative effects on Competence, and Confidence after a 6-month follow-up. In another longitudinal study with a sample of Filipino adolescents, PYD predicted better school engagement, contribution and mental health, via psychological needs satisfaction (Buenconsejo and Datu, 2024). In the same vein, Kozina et al. (2019) examined the 5Cs of PYD, and academic achievement in a cross-sectional study with a representative sample of 15-year-old adolescents in Slovenia. They demonstrated that confidence and character were positive predictors of math achievement and self-perceived competence. However, connection and caring were negative predictors of math achievement.

To date, no study has examined the interrelations between the two separate factors of grit, the 5Cs of PYD and different indicators of educational adjustment (specifically academic performance, academic stress, and academic boredom), nor have the possible mediational relationships. Likewise, few investigations have explored the relationship between grit and PYD in a sample of emerging adults as past investigations have focused on secondary school students. Given that most studies addressing grit have been developed in the USA and, Asian countries (e.g., China and the Philippines), more research is needed in Europe.

In the case of Spain, some academic results underline the importance of paying close attention to youth academic performance, and well-being. Data from the HBSC study in Spain, in adolescents aged 17–18 years old, showed that more than 70% reported feeling stressed or very stressed, and more than 30% reported suffering psychosomatic problems several times a week (Moreno et al., 2019). Data from the National Institute of Statistics in Spain showed that 74% of high school students and 60% of college students experienced stress related to academic workload (Carina, 2023). In a recent national study with Spanish university students, the results underscored that approximately half of the sample suffered from depressive and anxiety symptoms (Ministerio de Universidades, 2023a). Furthermore, more than a quarter of undergraduates dropped out, and 12.5% changed their degree courses. Dropout rates were especially high among students with lower grades at the time of university entry. Thus, half of the students with an admission grade around 5–5.5 abandoned their degree studies (Ministerio de Universidades, 2023b). Consequently, more research is needed to examine academic adjustment with Spanish undergraduates and their correlates with grit and PYD, which may guide the design of interventions.

A cross-sectional study was conducted in the spring of 2024. All universities in Andalusia (Spain) agreed to participate in the study. Concerning the sampling procedure, the selection of degree programs and academic years was randomly conducted in each participating university. Different professors from each university were contacted to share this online questionnaire with their students. A self-report questionnaire was administered online to a sample of university students in Spain who were accepted to participate. The participants required approximately 30 min to complete the questionnaire. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and received previous approval from the Institutional Ethics Board of the University of Huelva on January 10, 2019. The sample provided written consent and did not receive any incentive to participate.

The sample was composed of 370 undergraduates (67.2% women, 31.4% men, and 1.4% non-binary), aged 18–29 (M = 21.29, SD = 3.61). The participants were enrolled at 10 universities in Andalusia (Spain), i.e., University of Almeria, University of Cadiz, University of Cordoba, University of Granada, University of Huelva, University of Jaen, University of Malaga, University of Seville, University Pablo de Olavide (Seville), and Loyola University (Seville and Cordoba). Most participants lived in cities with more than 300,000 inhabitants (38.4%) or between 50,001 and 300,000 (31.1%). In terms of cohabitation, most students lived with their parents (49.5%) or flatmates (30.5%). Furthermore, 54.5% of the participants were single. Nearly two thirds of the sample (65.6%) was studying and not looking for a job. Concerning their academic degrees, 39.7% studied a degree in Law or Social Sciences, 29.6% studied Sciences/Engineering, 19.2% studied Arts and humanities, and 11.5% of the participants were enrolled in a degree of Health Sciences. About half of the participants were enrolled in the first or second academic year, while 42.6% were enrolled in the 3rd course and 7.4% in the 4th or higher academic year.

Descriptive statistics (i.e., mean and standard deviation) of PYD (both the 5Cs and the overall scale), grit (consistency of interest, effort perseverance and overall score) and academic adjustment variables (academic perceived performance, academic stress and academic boredom) were examined. First, bivariate Pearson correlations were examined among the study variables. Second, three stepwise regression analyses were separately conducted to explain academic performance, academic stress and academic boredom. These analyses were carried out with age and gender entering first, grit dimensions entering second and the 5Cs entering third. R-squared and standardized coefficients are reported below. These analyses were performed to identify the dimensions of grit and PYD that were most strongly related to the three academic adjustment outcomes. These analyses were calculated with SPSS 21.0. Fourth, three mediational analyses were tested to examine the mediation of PYD dimensions on the relationship between grit dimensions and each outcome of academic adjustment (see Figure 1). The mediation analyses were performed only for the significant predictors established in the stepwise regression analyses. Indirect effects were examined, as well as total and direct effects. These analyses were conducted with JASP 0.18.3.0.

Table 1 shows descriptive statistics (i.e., means and standard deviations) and bivariate correlations among the study variables. Moderate scores were found in Academic performance and Academic boredom, while high mean score was detected in Academic stress. Concerning PYD dimensions, the highest mean scores were found in Caring and Character, while the lowest one was detected in Competence. With regards to grit, moderate mean scores were found, with the highest value in perseverance of effort. Furthermore, perceived academic performance was positively associated with 5Cs of PYD and both grit dimensions. Academic stress was negatively associated with grit, Character, Confidence, Competence and Connection, while it was positively related to Caring. Academic boredom had negative associations with grit and all the PYD dimensions except Caring. The size of correlations was small to moderate. Furthermore, positive correlations were observed among 5Cs of PYD and grit dimensions. Finally, academic performance was negatively related to stress and boredom, whereas stress and boredom showed a positive correlation.

Table 2 presents the results of the three stepwise regression analyses with three indicators of academic adjustment as outcome variables: academic performance, academic stress, and academic boredom. Grit dimensions, 5 Cs of PYD, and the demographic covariates (i.e., gender and age) were used as predictors in all three analyses. Regarding academic performance, gender and age were not significant predictors, while perseverance of effort and Confidence were significant predictors. The regression model explained 15.8% of the variance of Academic performance. Similarly, with regards to academic stress, neither gender nor age were significant predictors, while perseverance of effort and Competence were negative predictors, and caring was a positive predictor. All predictors together explained 12.1% of academic stress variance. Finally, gender and age were significant predictors of academic boredom, such that women and younger students tend to report higher scores in academic boredom. Additionally, academic boredom was predicted also by lower consistency of interest and lower Connection, all predictors together reaching an explained variance of R² = 0.12. In these three regression analyses, the significant coefficients showed small and moderate effect sizes and reached medium-sized explained variances in each regression equation.

Based on the previous stepwise regression analyses, three mediation models were tested in which PYD dimensions that were found to be significant predictors of selected academic adjustment indicators mediated the relationships between a grit dimension and an academic adjustment variable. First, Table 3 and Figure 2 present the results of the mediation analyses of Confidence as a mediator in the relationship between effort perseverance and academic performance. Results showed that the positive relationship between effort perseverance and academic performance was partially mediated by the Confidence dimension of PYD. Thus, higher effort perseverance was associated with better academic performance directly and through a positive relationship of the effort perseverance with the Confidence, which in turn is positively related to better academic performance. The total effect of effort perseverance on academic performance was reduced after including the mediator, and the indirect effect through Confidence was positive. The model explained 14.5% of the variance of academic performance, which indicates a medium-sized effect.

Table 4 and Figure 3 describe the results of the mediation analyses for both Competence and Caring on the relationship between effort perseverance and academic stress. Effort perseverance was negatively associated with academic stress, directly and through its association with Competence and Caring dimensions of PYD. Higher effort perseverance was related to higher Competence, and in turn higher Competence was related to less academic stress. Caring showed a controversial result, since it was positively related to more academic stress. A negative indirect effect was observed through Competence, but a positive one was observed though Caring. Thus, higher effort perseverance was related to less academic stress when it was related to more Competence, but effort perseverance was associated with more academic stress when it was related to more Caring. The model explained 13% of the variance of academic stress, which indicates a medium size effect.

Table 5 and Figure 4 show the results of the mediation analyses for Connection as a mediator of the relationship between interest consistency and ccademic boredom. Higher interest consistency was related to lower academic boredom directly and through a positive relationship with Connection, which in turn was positively related to less academic boredom. The indirect effect was negative, such that the positive association between interest consistency and Connection led to lower academic boredom. The model explained 8.1% of the variance of academic boredom, which indicates a small size effect.

Some limitations should be acknowledged in this study. Because of the study’s cross-sectional design, the conclusions can only be based on concurrent associations between the variables. Longitudinal studies are recommended to examine the directionality between grit, PYD, and academic adjustment. In this line, prospective cross-lagged relationships and the examination of the trends in the relationships could be further examined. Moreover, the design of experimental or intervention-based studies should be encouraged to establish more definitive casual links. Furthermore, the use of self-reported questionnaires to collect the data may bias the results because subjective information was collected. Self-report measures may introduce some social desirability bias and subjective inaccuracies. Students’ perceptions of their academic stress, performance, and boredom may not always align with objective indicators. Objective measures could be collected for academic adjustment and multiple informants are also recommended. Moreover, some subscales showed moderate reliability, what may limit the conclusions of the study since those items may not collect precise information. Thus, future research should consider incorporating alternative data collection methods, such as official grades records, teacher evaluations, or peer assessments. In addition, the use of mixed-method approaches, including qualitative interviews or classroom observations, could provide deeper insights into the ways grit and PYD manifest in academic settings. Furthermore, the use of a convenient sample may limit the generalizability of the results to other undergraduate samples. Future research may address the examination of representative samples, as well as including youth population not enrolled in universities. Moreover, further cross-cultural examination is needed to compare the role of grit and PYD in the academic adjustment of Higher education students in individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Finally, other variables should be included in future studies. The medium-size effects observed in our analyses suggest the need to examine other variables. Developmental assets, personality traits or mental health outcomes, such as depression or anxiety symptoms, could play an important role in the associations between grit and academic adjustment. Despite these limitations, some implications for practice could be derived.

The medium-sized effects observed in the present work underlined the importance of personal strengths development (i.e., grit) and psychological well-being (i.e., PYD) promotion to improve academic success among undergraduate students. Specifically, these results underline the need to design interventions to improve academic adjustment in universities by jointly enhancing grit and PYD. Based on our results, perseverance of effort should be promoted jointly with the PYD dimensions of Confidence to improve academic performance, and with both competence and adaptive Caring to reduce academic stress. Likewise, programs aimed at promoting interest consistency should include activities which foster connection, as connection mediates the association between consistency of interest and academic boredom. In this line, perseverance of effort and consistency of interest, together with the PYD dimensions, might also guide program design to raise students’ grades point average or to reduce drop out, as possible correlates of the indicators of academic adjustment examined in the present work (Abreu Alves et al., 2022; Choi, 2005; Sharp et al., 2020).

The work by Santos et al. (2022) gave some key points in teaching grit based on scientific evidence. These authors conducted an intervention program for adolescents enrolled at public schools in North Macedonia. The intervention was composed of a curriculum of five, hour-long consecutive lessons, with a weekly frequency. These lessons were divided into two parts. The first one was focused on the deliberate practice, by identifying stretch goals, seeking feedback, improving concentration and repeating until getting mastery. The second part aimed at motivating students to implement this deliberate practice, by managing student expectancies, addressing academic values and reinforcing positive beliefs to create a virtuous learning cycle.

Along this line, Bashant (2014) reflected about the strategies on fostering perseverance in students: talking about the power of attitude and perseverance; turning the problem into a picture or puzzle; starting with small problems; sharing the “why” before the “what” to inspire the students; placing the students in communities to work together; making it a game; and rewarding hard work and delayed gratification. Hwang and Nam (2021) reviewed some interventions, such as: (a) the Grit Enhancement Program, developed by the US Department of Education, by promoting self-control, growth mindset, learning strategies, and resilience (Shechtman et al., 2013); and (b) the program created by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development with six steps, i.e., creating a supportive environment that recognizes people’s efforts, self-understanding through grit testing, teaching grit meaning, failure experience, examining the experience of failure, and learning through reflection (Hoerr, 2013). These authors selected some grit promotion strategies, specifically: teaching grit, reflecting on the past failures, promoting a growth mindset, fostering goal setting strategies, enhancing deliberate practice, reducing media overuse, improving emotional regulation skills, and nurturing interest discovery and maintenance.

Jointly with grit promotion in undergraduates, psychological well-being should be protected by following the strength-based perspective proposed by PYD model. The promotion of the 5Cs of PYD (Lerner et al., 2021) could contribute to student well-being and academic adjustment, as suggested by the 4-H Youth Development Programs (Arnold, 2018; Arnold and Gagnon, 2020). The 4-H Thriving Model consists of developing a growth mindset, openness to challenge and discovery, hopeful purpose, prosocial orientation, transcendent awareness, positive emotions and goal setting and management. Thus, the integration of grit intervention within this PYD program could have a synergetic effect to foster academic and later vocational success in undergraduate samples. Universities should create PYD-based mentorship programs (Erdem et al., 2016) to improve students’ wellbeing and academic adjustment. These programs could reinforce Confidence, Competence and Connection, which have been found to mediate academic results. Moreover, stress management workshops could be designed specifically for students with heightened levels of Caring, providing them with coping mechanisms to navigate emotional burnout when helping their peers (Greene et al., 2017). The prevention of compassion fatigue in youth samples may be encouraged by providing them with some experiences of positive empathy and psychoeducational practices to foster emotional regulation skills, as concluded by Gomez-Baya et al. (2025).