Gender responds to a set of characteristics assigned by society that differentiate men and women in terms of ideas, prescriptions and social valuations, providing a hierarchy of rights and roles and perpetuating gender inequality (Figueroa-Vargas, 2023; UNESCO, 2018).

In this sense, gender stereotypes and roles act as simplified beliefs on how people should behave and what characteristics they should have based on their gender. Gender perspective aims at questioning and denaturalizing gender roles and power relations between men and women in order to understand social constructions and categories that are characteristic to men and women (Martínez-Sierra et al., 2022; Morad-Acero, 2022; Flores et al., 2021; UNESCO, 2020).

Several authors (Figueroa-Vargas, 2023; Prioletta, 2023; Pinto et al., 2021; Zhu and Chang, 2019) highlight the persistency of gender biases and stereotypes in teachers ranging from initial education to children’s classrooms.

In spite of current progress towards gender equality, sexist and discriminatory practices persist. They are rooted in different institutions, including education, where it plays a socializing role that replicates and creates hierarchy, roles and stereotypes that perpetuate gender inequality between men and women by repeating historically attributed categories (Dorantes Carrión et al., 2023; UNESCO, 2020; PNUD, 2020).

By adopting a gender perspective, we can provide a framework that compels us to observe inequalities, allowing us to question the cultural patterns on which they are based (SEP, 2023). Conversely, the lack of a gender perspective might limit the ability of educators to properly fulfill the needs of children in diverse and multicultural educational contexts. So it is that integrating gender perspective into education turns out to be vital for more inclusive learning environments, such as teacher training, community engagement, and curriculum reform, impacting on enhance academic performance, reduce gender-based violence and promote social inclusion (Nkya and Kibona, 2024; Boholano et al., 2024).

Including a gender perspective in Pre-School Education is based on Ley 20.370 on General Education, Ley 20.536 on School Violence, Ley 20.845 on School Inclusion, Ley 20.609 on Measures against Discrimination, Ley 21.120 on the Right to Gender Identity and Ley 21.430 on Guarantees and Integral Protection of the Rights of Children and Youth (SEP, 2023; SEP, 2020), as well as Ley 21.369 (2021) on Sexual Harassment, Gender-Based Violence and Discrimination in Higher Education Institutions. This regulatory body sets forth requirements to be met by means of different actions within their academic communities. Consequently, institutions are required to develop and implement comprehensive policies that address prevention, investigation, sanctions, as well as elimination of such conducts. Similarly, Article 1 of Ley 21.120 (2018) acknowledges the right to Gender identity, as well as sex and registered name change. The law states that any person whose identity does not match their sex and registered name is entitled to request they be changed.

This is the response to the concept of mainstreaming, which refers to the process that allows the introduction of the gender perspective to any action that is planned, developed, implemented, supervised and evaluated, whether it is in legislation, policy or economic or social programs, with the aim of achieving gender equality (Vargas, 2022). In order to that, gender mainstreaming in education is essential for achieve more inclusive and democratic environments, studies highlight its role in eliminating stereotypes, while promoting equity and social justice, considering an appropriate educational policies and teacher training (Ortega-Sánchez et al., 2025; Hemillan-Sacro et al., 2022).

In Chile, there is evidence of the inclusion of gender-focused courses in only three different Pre-School Education programs, which reflects the small extent of training with a gender perspective in higher education programs, in spite of it being key in the promotion of education free of sex-based bias and discrimination in language, behavior and attitude (UNESCO, 2022; Ministerio de Educación, 2019a; SEP, 2018a; Falabella, 2017).

The Ministry of Education of Chile has published several guidelines to address gender equality. The Framework for the Good Teaching of Pre-School Education represents the guideline that comprises gender as a matter of inclusion (Ministerio de Educación, 2019b). The Curricular Foundations of Pre-School (BCEP for its Spanish initials) framework encourages pre-school educators to assume an active role in “inclusive education, diversity, interculturalism, gender perspective, citizen education” (SEP, 2018b, p. 3).

Nevertheless, according to Muñoz-García and Lira (2020), they lack concrete guidelines in terms of the work in the classroom, as it is ambiguous and overly general. This raises the need of rethinking education from an intersectional point of view or otherwise “mainstreaming gender perspective,” thereby helping in understanding how it relates to other aspects of education (Marcelo and Alegre, 2023; Consejo de Rectores de las Universidades Chilenas, 2021). It is essential to appropriately organize learning experiences so that all individuals present in the classroom have equal opportunities for exploration and learning (SEP, 2023).

Evidence (Zhu and Chang, 2019) shows the perpetuation of gender-based biases and stereotypes in teaching practices since early education in children’s classrooms. In this sense, the education system is a key foundation in perpetuating gender roles due to its dominant role in socialization (Sáinz and Meneses, 2018).

In Chile, there is research on pre-school education that shows that stereotypes and sexist practices continue to exist. In a Chilean study on sexism in pre-school education, Martínez-Palma et al. (2023) analyzed the representations of gender in Chile’s reading plan included in the literary corpus for early infancy. The study showed that narrations and characters perpetuate traditional gender stereotypes, which might have a negative influence on the gender perception of children during their early years of education.

Conversely, Cortázar and Vielma (2017) studied teaching interactions among female educators, who tended to help girls in their assignments without their asking for it. In contrast, educators made 30% more cognitively-focused questions to boys when compared to girls. Such behavior contributes to a sense of insecurity and lack of autonomy in girls. That’s how often unconsciously teachers reinforce gender stereotypes through their behaviors, practices that can shape children’s preferences, perpetuating traditional gender roles (Bay-Dönertaş, 2023).

In a qualitative study conducted in four educational institutions, Figueroa-Vargas (2023) found that teaching practices require continuous training and reflection by educators regarding the gender perspective. In fact, female educators perceive girls as passive learners, while boys are seen as inventive (Azúa et al., 2019; Cortázar and Vielma, 2017; Azúa, 2016). In Chile, according to Pinto et al. (2021), the “heteronormative culture” in early childhood contains gender representations and stereotypes both in their initial training and their career development.

Outside of Chile, Wingrave (2018) found that pre-school educators are not aware of their perpetuating gender stereotypes by reinforcing certain practices in the classroom. Halim and Ruble (2010) carried out a study in the United States, using the theory of cognitive development. This research showed that gender identity starts to develop between 18 and 24 months of age, and those stereotypes are well established by the end of the pre-school stage. These factors significantly affect the behavior and preferences of children by influencing their choice of toys and activities. On that path, the use of inclusive literature can empower the students, foster self-acceptance and broaden their understanding of diversity gender, by a thoughtful selection and discussion contributing to different gender visibility and acceptance in the class (Luecke, 2021).

Despite educators see it as an effective teaching tool for child development, play can perpetuate gender stereotypes. This underlines the need of “critical gender alphabetization” in early years in order to transform teaching practices, taking into account that the development of inclusive and egalitarian environments is either promoted or limited in this stage (Prioletta, 2023; SEP, 2023).

This study addresses the significance of gender perspective, sexist practices and stereotypes that are perceived and experienced by students of the Pre-School Education program in children’s classrooms, based on the following questions: What notions, ideas or perceptions regarding gender perspective have been internalized by Pre-School Education students? How do gender stereotypes and sexist practices manifest in pre-school classrooms? How does training on gender perspective influence educators in the reduction of sexist practices and gender stereotypes in children’s classrooms?

Objectives:

In the context of the training curriculum of the program, it is worth noting that the profile of a graduate expressly describes competence N° 3 in particular: “comprehensively assuming the role of a teacher, consolidated in an ethical dimension of inclusion, respect, tolerance and the projection of universal human values to address regional and national demands of the educational system with social responsibility.” (Performance section: teaching in the educational system).

In terms of curriculum, some syllabi include the topic within their learning outcomes, depending on the course and semester of study (Table 1).

Based on the table above, the topic under consideration is mentioned throughout the learning outcomes of the courses. This shows that they are included in the curriculum in different semesters of the study program (Tables 2, 3).

It should be noted that these explicit learning outcomes aim at the development of basic and intermediate skills of initial cognitive appropriation that students should show at a micro-curricular level. However, there is a need to work on minor curriculum adjustments that allow the students to transfer what they have learned about gender perspective in the context of progressive and professional practice training.

The descriptive statistical analyses show a very positive valuation of the gender perspective by the surveyed students: 80% agree and totally agree with the role of pre-school educators as mediators and facilitators for gender-related topics, as well the relevance of gender equality in initial teacher training. However, only one in five agree that they have sufficient information on gender equality and on recognizing sexual-gender diversity.

Also, 90% of the surveyed students agree that play is the best strategy to teach gender equality, closely linked to citizen education of children. The statement: “I have enough information regarding gender equality and recognition of gender diversity and gender dissidence” obtains 47% of responses in the categories disagree and strongly disagree.

It is noteworthy that, on average, 36% of participants do not agree nor disagree with the statement. This suggests it is a neutral category of one in three responses. Students may not have sufficient information or the information that is available may not provide them with the tools to act.

The main results show that the course to which the students belong (first, second, third and fourth year) does not have a significant impact on the knowledge about gender equality and diversity.

However, the Spearman correlation shows a significant negative relationship, i.e., students in more advanced courses might feel less informed about gender diversity and dissidences than first-year or second-year students.

Regarding the recognition of diversity in families, the Chi-squared test shows an important association regarding relational diversity, while Spearman correlations are significant and positive for both variables, i.e., students in more advanced courses tends to recognize family diversity more frequently.

Additionally, there are significant associations for the concepts of sexual orientation and intersex people. Conversely, the course does not show a statistically significant relationship in topics such as gender identity, gender-based discrimination, different abilities between men and women, and the perception of gender equality in Chile.

Training on gender perspective shows that there is no association between the program year and the perception regarding its relevance, gender stereotypes, sex education, the role of nursery school educators and the Curricular Foundations of Pre-School (SEP, 2018a).

It should be noted that Chi-squared tests are in Category 2. In Training on Gender Perspective, the outcomes are the following:

The results point to a shared awareness among students regarding the importance of incorporating a gender perspective in education. Nonetheless, the lack of statistically significant correlations indicates that further investigation is needed to understand the underlying processes through which students engage with gender-related content, particularly at the level of attitudes, values, and pedagogical choices.

The findings of this research suggest that gender stereotypes continue to be replicated in children’s classrooms in Biobio Region, Chile. Our results show that gender equality continues to be a goal for the future, but that it cannot be achieved without taking Pre-School Education into the equation.

This result is revealing since first and second year students have quickly incorporated the significance of the gender perspective in their training and their role as pre-school educators. It is possible to hypothesize about the role of gender mainstreaming, which has enhanced its effect several years after the beginning of the implementation of this policy in the curriculum.

In relation to the last category, which includes perceptions and personal commitment, researchers observed that the group under study is not linked to the adoption of a gender identity in their families or among their peers, or to the recognition of belonging to dissidences. It should be noted that these are students enrolled in a degree program that, in Chile, has traditionally been pursued by women.

Regarding the perception of discrimination in university classrooms by professors or peers, the Chi-squared test suggests that there is a significant relationship with the course, as shown below:

Therefore, committing to learning about gender equality and playing an active role as a citizen in inclusion and gender equality, do not show a statistical relationship with the course.

In this context, it is important to mention “Feminist May” in 2018 in Chile, which brought attention to topics such as sexual harassment and violence in university spaces. After several months of demonstrations by female students, agreements were reached which laid the groundwork for institutional policies. This has led to the creation of offices dedicated to gender equality in recent years (Garrido, 2023). In the same vein, the findings regarding gender stereotypes are worth mentioning since they are still replicated in children’s classrooms. Table 4 presents findings derived from the semantic differential analysis of focus group transcripts. These data reflect students’ direct observations and interpretations during their internships.

Table 4 shows results from most frequent to least frequent. It is noteworthy that the reference to colors and toys is the most common one, followed by behavior and emotions. In this regard, it is important to mention that color and toy types differentiated by sex are a symbolic representation of what society understands as feminine and masculine. Both are understood as an essence, a must be. As a result, girls have a feminine essence and boys a masculine essence, as evidenced by the following statement made by a student. Telling girls that they have to be delicate and play carefully and telling boys that they are men and that is why they have to be brave and they cannot cry.

This explains the suppression of emotions such as crying in boys and their being allowed messy and rough behavior. Conversely, girls are allowed to express sadness, but not anger, since they must be quiet and delicate. An example of this is the following sentence: “girls cannot play as rough because that’s not lady-like.” The use of differentiated spaces and activities is also mentioned: “Giving girls babies or dolls and boys construction machines.” Two students remarked: “treating boys as stronger and capable of more complex things than girls” and “acknowledging males because of their achievement and learning.” This reflects discrimination, as mentioned above.

The analysis of the applied technique allows us to state that, despite being in different years of the program, there is an agreement among students regarding the value of gender perspective, which contributes to reducing discrimination and promoting an inclusive society. However, the students recognize that there is a lack of training, not only in relation to theory but also regarding practice, to transfer this knowledge into the classroom.

The students share their experiences in the classroom regarding gender stereotypes, more interestingly with respect to how they address gender and biases in their relationship with families, other educators and the technical team. Having practical experience is key for putting theoretical learning into practice in the children’s classroom.

In fact, the internship experiences show diversity regarding the topic: from classrooms without gender stereotypes to classrooms with stereotypes, which is mainly evidenced in topics like games, toys and colors. In the experiences below, the students express their reflections on gender stereotypes and different scenarios they have faced:

Based on the focus group corpus, it is possible to state that the main challenge identified by the students is putting gender knowledge into practice that is, working in the classroom with a gender perspective. To this end, it is proposed to strengthen the work with families, which should also be extended to schools and the school community.

The gender perspective should be expanded, with families and teaching and technical teams. For example, we propose implementing inclusive games, without gender stereotypes. In this regard, the incorporation of the gender perspective in the Pre-School Education curriculum has a positive value. The students raise their concerns regarding the difficulties involved in working with “more closed-minded” families, in which traditional gender roles are assigned, and in this sense, they see educators as “agents for change” who contribute to this purpose by “setting an example,” “not imposing beliefs” and educating “for inclusion since early childhood.” For this reason, it is necessary to find a balance between accompanying boys and girls with a gender perspective and accompanying families.

The weak association of the gender perspective with various spheres of social life is worth noting. In other words, the participants do not fully see the influence of gender inequalities throughout people’s lives. In this sense, there is a need for more learning about basic issues such as the promotion of gender equality, not only in relation to games or colors, but also regarding the fact that what boys/girls and women/men do is equally valuable. This is precisely one of the most deep-rooted causes of inequality and sexism, thus imposing the male sex as superior to the female sex. Furthermore, the gender perspective is seen as an opportunity to promote a more just society, where gender roles do not restrain boys, girls and youth from their decisions and interests. A relevant issue for future teachers relates to expectations. In male-sexist societies these tend to be higher for boys to the detriment of girls, which affects self-esteem. Expectations and self-esteem require a joint work when developing strategies for children’s classrooms.