In 2010, the United Nations General Assembly established crucial standards for water quality and quantity, underscoring their importance in sustainability efforts. The Assembly urged all nations to ensure personal and domestic water supplies meet specific criteria (UNGA, 2010): (i) Water delivery must be adequate, providing a steady flow of 50 to 100 liters daily per individual; (ii) Water must conform to quality benchmarks; (iii) Sanitation facilities must be culturally appropriate, considerate of gender, and mindful of life cycles, demonstrating acceptable organoleptic properties; (iv) Access to water and sanitation services should be convenient, located within or near homes (less than 1,000 meters away and within a 30-min walk); (v) Water costs should remain affordable, capped at no more than 3% of a household’s monthly budget income.

Sanitation refers to systems that manage human waste, solid waste, wastewater, and drainage to protect health (UN-WATER, 2022). Effective wastewater disposal requires well-maintained sewer networks and efficient treatment plants to remove pollutants before returning the water to the environment or a reuse system. Poor water quality and inadequate hygiene significantly threaten human health and hinder social and economic progress (Winkler and Satterthwaite, 2017; Lin et al., 2022). These issues are particularly common in rural and peri-urban areas (Yu et al., 2014; Mishra, 2023), where poverty limits access to basic human rights, negatively affecting the ecosystem (Anglés-Hernández, 2016; Hargrove et al., 2018). Additionally, municipal and industrial wastewater is released into the environment without sufficient treatment (Bayu et al., 2020; García-Searcy et al., 2022; INEGI, 2023).

The National Water Commission (Conagua) manages water resources to ensure security and sustainability in Mexico. Municipalities are responsible for providing drinking water, sewage, and sanitation services, as well as handling urban solid waste (Wilder et al., 2020; García-Searcy et al., 2022; Koul et al., 2022).

The karst aquifer system, primarily composed of carbonate limestone rocks, is the primary source of fresh water in Yucatán and the peninsula (DOGEY, 2019). Unfortunately, the National Water Law does not account for the distinct features of this aquifer (DOF, 2023), resulting in overexploitation and contamination. Many people in Yucatán and throughout Mexico do not have access to public water services that fulfill the standards for the HRWS. Over 70% of households nationwide experience water supply challenges, such as low pressure (Guardiola et al., 2010) and insufficient connections to sewage treatment networks. Mérida, the state capital, has thirty-five key domestic wastewater treatment facilities, yet 105 municipalities in the state lack such necessary infrastructure (CONAGUA, 2021). Consequently, less than 3% of the water extracted is treated for reuse (DOGEY, 2019). Yucatán experiences a higher-than-average rate of acute diarrheal diseases in children under five (Yang et al., 2012; Shamah-Levy et al., 2020), which adversely affects both their physical and cognitive development (Lin et al., 2022; Wolf et al., 2023). This pressing issue highlights the urgency and importance of our efforts in research.

The school setting encourages discussion and analysis (Kansal and Venkatesh, 2020; Pegalajar-Palomino et al., 2021; Li et al., 2022), promoting knowledge exchange, shaping perceptions, and inspiring pro-environmental actions, especially among elementary and middle school learners. In some Latin American nations, students at this age gain their first insights into the natural environment; this may comprise their only formal education regarding these topics throughout their lives (Navarrete-Cazales and Ocaña-Pérez, 2022). Hence, it is crucial for teachers to receive training to effectively address sustainability (Young and Malone, 2023), develop the ability to contextualize information, acknowledge the urgency of environmental challenges, and weave ethical values into the human-nature connection (Cebrián and Junyent, 2015; Cebrián et al., 2020; Barrable, 2019). Such training will empower educators to effectively impart knowledge and foster critical attitudes in students, encouraging active involvement with environmental matters (Ellerbrock et al., 2016).

Educational programs in hydrology and hydrogeology currently face notable information gaps. Students find it challenging to link the water-related knowledge acquired in school to the water management practices in their communities (Lázaro-Salazar, 2020). To promote pro-environmental behaviors, it’s essential to identify threats and take proactive measures, evaluating the seriousness of environmental issues and personal risk (Rogers, 1975; Floyd et al., 2000; Milne et al., 2000; Rainear and Christensen, 2017). The most effective pro-environmental actions emerge when the seriousness of environmental crises is recognized and adaptive strategies are developed to mitigate vulnerability (Brownlee et al., 2013; Falkenmark, 2020; Zobeidi et al., 2022). Achieving this necessitates a thorough analysis of resource management and an understanding of how natural systems operate locally and globally (Pakmehr et al., 2020; Shafiei and Maleksaeidi, 2020). An effective legal framework, social influences (Lange and Dewitte, 2019), and environmental values and knowledge development are crucial for encouraging behavioral change (Li et al., 2022). Additionally, the school environment significantly contributes to the cognitive development that underpins these behaviors (Brownlee et al., 2013).

In Latin America, the scarcity of research on how this perception gap impacts teacher training and environmental awareness highlights the urgency for studies addressing the region’s socio-environmental challenges (Corrochano Fernández et al., 2021). In this context, we pose the following questions: (i) How do teacher trainees perceive their and their community’s access to the HRWS, and what gaps exist in their understanding? (ii) To what extent do these perceptions accurately represent the current conditions of HRWS, and how do they influence their engagement with water-related challenges? (iii) How do these perceptions affect their ability to acquire and convey knowledge that contributes to effective water management and sustainable long-term solutions?

This study evaluates how the study population perceives HRWS and its vulnerabilities pertaining to public water and sanitation services. It also explores how these perceptions influence the recognition of vulnerabilities at both the community and household levels, comparing the students viewpoints with actual conditions. Furthermore, the study pinpoints deficiencies in educational materials to inform the development of interventions, ultimately aiming to improve current educational programs.

The Bioethics Committee for Research in Human Beings authorized the protocol at the Center for Research and Advanced Studies (COBISH-Cinvestav, document No. 096/2022). In Mexico, educators are trained in “Escuelas Normales” (Normal Schools) that cater to different educational levels, such as elementary, intermediate, and high school. The study was conducted in three schools located in Dzidzantún, Ticul, and Valladolid, all in Yucatán, Mexico. Each of the three localities features a notable rural and indigenous population. While these traits aren’t the focus of this study, they play a crucial role in understanding how access to HRWS is perceived and interpreted. These schools are part of the public education system and prepare teachers for elementary and middle school education. As the Secretary of Public Education (SEP, 2021) reported, ninety-one percent of teachers graduating from these programs are set to teach in elementary public schools, which serve 80% of the population between ages seven and fifteen.

The sample was selected through convenience sampling based on accessibility and participants’ willingness to participate. The study focused on second-semester students (August-December 2022) enrolled in the geography course, with 211 students (N = 211) following the existing curriculum. Geography was selected because it focuses on analyzing the interactions among people, abiotic factors, and society, making it the ideal course for this incorporation intervention. An informational session was conducted with the students to outline the objectives and structure of the educational intervention study (electronic modality). Those who consented to participate received a letter of informed consent, which they signed to fulfill this requirement. The letter detailed how researchers would manage the data confidentially, assuring participants there would be no negative consequences for opting out and that they could withdraw from the study at any time.

The national educational program and the graduate profile for primary education teachers focus on developing professional competencies (DOF, 2018). To ensure this research and its topics are relevant to this educational framework, we chose the model of professional competencies in education for sustainability (CPES; Cebrián and Junyent, 2015). This model offers a systematic framework, enabling educators to blend cognitive and practical skills to incorporate sustainability principles into their teaching practices.

This model is especially pertinent to the Mexican education system because it supports national competency-based policies and promotes the integration of sustainability topics into the curriculum, making the study more replicable. Previous research (Cebrián and Junyent, 2015; Cebrián et al., 2020; OECD, 2019) has shown its efficacy in developing critical thinking and improving problem-solving skills necessary for tackling sustainability issues in various educational settings contexts.

As part of this approach, a table of concepts on water sustainability (Table 1) was developed. This table emerged from an extensive literature review and was specifically aimed at tackling issues related to HRWS. It helped conceptualize HRWS challenges, guiding the creation of items that recognize, contextualize, and critically evaluate access to public water services. The process was aligned with international guidelines by referencing parameters related to the human right to water and sanitation.

Data from the evaluation tools, including the questionnaire and self-assessment, were organized and categorized in Microsoft Excel^®. An analysis of the responses was performed to identify key categories, patterns, and frequencies, which clarified the concepts the students interacted with. For open-ended questions, participants could submit several responses.

The responses were counted to assess the frequency, and percentages were calculated to show the status of HRWS, governance in water management, and participants’ views on water distribution and sanitation issues. The Likert scale responses were analyzed through Cronbach’s alpha to measure the internal reliability of the questionnaire. Levene’s test was used to evaluate the homogeneity of the variances of the groups being compared. To enhance result visualization and assess adherence to HRWS parameters (Figure 1), student responses were categorized into: good when students reported that they always received the service, regular for those who indicated they received it almost always or regularly, and bad for those who said they received it rarely or never.

Eighty-five percent of the participants acknowledged a global water crisis. They highlighted issues such as drought and water supply challenges in other regions but failed to see the connection to their local circumstances. The remaining fifteen percent rejected the notion of a water crisis. They defended their stance by stating that water frequently reached their homes, that it was plentiful in Yucatan, and that the situation was not as dire as in other countries. This indicates a lack of awareness about the national water situation. When asked whether the water crisis had a solution, 90% of the students responded positively. The remaining 10% denied that a solution existed and justified their viewpoint by citing the scale of the crisis and the challenges of enacting change due to insufficient knowledge and citizen preparedness. We found that 73% of the students felt their HRWS had been violated, primarily due to issues with access and availability. The other 27% did not see their HRWS as violated because they believed the water issues were not severe, and they still received water, even if it was only once a day. This underscores the need for a stronger connection between the national context and students’ daily lives.

The opinions expressed about the state of the HRWS in their communities primarily highlighted three key aspects:

The participants were asked to identify community issues in water management. They found that the most common problem was in the water distribution networks. They provided several examples of failures in access, metering, and service hours, which accounted for 52% of the reported issues. Eight percent of participants indicated the need for better water quality and acceptability from the municipal water service, as well as improvements in domestic hydraulic systems infrastructure.

Concerning solutions to the identified problems, the participants recognized two key priorities. The first was the renewal and maintenance of municipal hydraulic infrastructure, noted by 33% of participants. The second priority was training and effectively monitoring government employees responsible for municipal water management, with 25% of participants emphasizing this necessity. Other significant points that should be addressed were promoting water culture (3%) and enhancing industrial hydraulic infrastructure to prevent contamination or overexploitation of water sources (2%) (Table 2). The proposed measures to address the water crisis were as follows:

The responses were categorized according to the compliance levels indicated in the self-assessment questionnaire (Figure 1). Participants who reported consistently receiving the service were classified as good, while those who mentioned inconsistent or insufficient service were classified as poor.

Participants acknowledged that optimal adherence to domestic and local sanitation requires effective collection and proper disposal of solid waste, along with the treatment of wastewater. They felt that both home and industrial wastewater are suitably processed in municipal treatment facilities, provided there’s a network linking their septic tanks to the municipal system.

Table 3 presents feedback regarding perceptions of water resource management. The results suggest that the government falls short of standards for ensuring water is accessible and available. Students feel that reliable access to water is uncertain since, in some locations, piped water is either unavailable or only flows sporadically. The quality of water is deemed unacceptable, as consumption can jeopardize health. Participants recognize that failing to meet specific criteria for household drinking water can negatively impact health, hygiene, and safety. Sixty percent (n = 120) indicated that someone in their household experienced gastrointestinal illnesses between one and five times per month. They were asked whether the discomfort was related to the quality of the water. The most common response was that they did not know. The government is responsible for water management through institutions such as the National Water Commission (CONAGUA), the Secretariat of the Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT), and the municipalities. In Yucatán, the Potable Water and Sewage Board (JAPAY) oversees public water services; this agency is the designated government body for these operations. Yet, no student had this awareness. They highlighted the common conviction that all citizens deserve equal opportunities concerning private initiatives. They observed restricted access to water resources, citing overuse and inconsistencies in the prices companies pay for water. Following their experience with industrial water pollution, the students noted that, although regulations are in place, there is a lack of enforcement by authorities. The penalties seem to fail to mitigate the effects of pollution. They referenced cases of visible environmental harm, yet the accountable companies persist in their operations and pollution without consequences. They recognized the importance of citizen participation in water management. They understood that active involvement in management could enhance citizens’ awareness of their responsibilities regarding water management and empower them to demand and propose better alternatives to address management shortcomings. Examples of citizen participation included organized marches, identifying problems, and community suggestions for improvement made to their municipalities. Based on the evaluation of the overall condition of the HRWS, as illustrated in Figure 2, the following findings were made: (i) Municipal water management services are severely affected, with examples and descriptions of limitations in access and quality; (ii) citizens face disadvantages compared to private initiatives regarding access, availability, and affordability; (iii) there is a lack of accountability in established cases of industrial pollution. Despite acknowledging these limitations, 46% of participants regarded their HRWS as fair, while 40% rated it as good. Only 7% assessed it as “bad” and 5% as “very bad.”

In comparing the current HRWS parameters, derived from official data and scientific studies, with students’ perceptions as shown in Table 4, the categorization of service to citizens is as follows:

The students’ feedback was categorized using consistent criteria based on the conditions under which they discussed the services linked to the HRWS. Their feedback was presented as percentages. Regarding accessibility, a significant portion rated it as good (60%). They struggled to identify issues related to the acceptability of domestic and municipal sanitation due to clearer discrepancies between actual conditions and perceptions. Eighty-four percent indicated a septic tank connected to a municipal treatment facility. Nevertheless, none of the towns where the schools are situated have sewage treatment infrastructure (CONAGUA, 2021). They reported that urban solid waste management was regular (55%). The municipality provides an inconsistent garbage collection service, and the waste is dumped in a municipal dumpster that does not meet the minimum standards of a landfill as outlined in the Urban Solid Waste Norm 083-SEMARNAT-2021 (DOF, 2021; DOGEY, 2019). Acceptability was rated as good (51%). However, they do not drink piped water and report getting sick if they consume it (Table 4).

Students recognized that the government failed to ensure human rights for safe drinking water and sanitation (HRWS) and lacked effective monitoring, surveillance, and law enforcement (Wilder et al., 2020; García-Searcy et al., 2022). Nonetheless, the suggested enhancements primarily emphasized immediate access and availability, while offering limited focus on regulating polluting activities and overexploitation.