Global interest in inclusive education began three decades ago but has recently increased. Inclusive education for people with disabilities aims to address all the barriers that prevent learners with disabilities from participating in education (Jardinez and Natividad, 2024). It helps to improve academic achievement, peer acceptance, and self-esteem as well as augment emotional, psychological, and social development (UNESCO, 2023). Although special education teachers play an essential role in the effective and successful implementation of inclusive education (Klochko et al., 2022), they face many professional challenges, including burnout (Kabak and Özbakır, 2023). In Saudi Arabia, studies by Al-Kharaan (2023) and Al-Qahtani (2016) found that special education teachers suffer from high levels of burnout. This burnout affects not only the teachers but also the students and the schools they serve (Nuri et al., 2017).

Herbert J. Freudenberger, a German physician and psychologist, was the first to describe the term burnout in his scientific paper ‘Staff Burn-Out’ as ‘being exhausted by making excessive demands on energy, strength or resources’ in the workplace (Freudenberger, 1974, p. 159). The term was then developed by American psychologist Christina Maslach, one of the most prominent pioneers of burnout research. She developed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), which is still the most widely used inventory (Heinemann and Heinemann, 2017). Maslach and Leiter (2016) defined burnout as a psychological syndrome that manifests as a prolonged response to chronic personal stress at work, with three main dimensions: overwhelming exhaustion, feelings of cynicism and detachment from work, and feelings of ineffectiveness and lack of accomplishment. Despite the importance of this issue, the World Health Organization (2019) has included burnout in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) as an occupational phenomenon, not a disease. Burnout is a syndrome resulting from accumulated and chronic stressors in the workplace that have not been effectively and successfully managed, resulting in the depletion of an individual’s energy, increased negative feelings about work and self, and decreased professional efficiency (World Health Organization, 2019).

According to the above definitions, teacher burnout is a multidimensional syndrome characterised by emotional exhaustion, reduced performance, and detachment from personal relationships. Although not all teachers suffer from burnout, it is a serious professional problem that can undermine the quality of education and the well-being of teachers (Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, 2019). According to Al-Sharif (2020), the symptoms of teacher burnout do not appear suddenly but are a process that grows gradually until the symptoms appear, and these symptoms can vary from one teacher to another. Alfayez (2023) classified the symptoms of burnout as organic (physical), psychoemotional, and social. Burnout is closely related to the physical, psychological, and social health of teachers, which may negatively affect their effectiveness (Hall and Goetz, 2013).

In recent decades, numerous scientific studies have indicated that special education teachers are more susceptible to burnout and attrition than general education teachers (Brownell and Smith, 1992; Brunsting et al., 2014; Billingsley, 1993; Boe et al., 1997; DeMik, 2008; Fore et al., 2002; Hester et al., 2020; Jackson, 2023; Plash and Piotrowski, 2005; Williams and Dikes, 2015). The responsibilities and tasks of special education teachers are more than those of general education teachers in inclusive education settings (Kumari et al., 2019; Rogers and Johnson, 2018; Tyagi, 2016; Williams and Dikes, 2015). General education teachers are primarily responsible for all students, including students with disabilities, while the role of special education teachers is to provide consultation, support, and collaboration to address the needs of both general education teachers and students with disabilities within the classroom (Shyman, 2015). Although special education teachers face barriers that require reconsideration of their roles and responsibilities, their duties are considered crucial in promoting inclusive education (Abrol, 2023).

The sources and causes of burnout among special education teachers are diverse. Often, personal characteristics, such as sex, experience, educational level, and subspeciality, influence the level of burnout (Al-Khatatba, 2021; Stathopoulou et al., 2023; Park and Shin, 2020). Some studies have found that female teachers are more likely to experience burnout than male teachers (Garcia-Arroyo et al., 2019; Nagar, 2012), while others have found that the opposite is true (Al-dyiar and Salem, 2013; Bayani et al., 2013; Girgin and Baysal, 2005). Male teachers are affected by administrative and organisational issues and the school environment, while female teachers are more affected by psychological and physical reactions and workloads (Tran, 2015; Tsubono et al., 2024). Workload, lack of shared decision-making, and student misconduct are negatively associated with teacher burnout regardless of sex (Abós et al., 2019).

Research on burnout among special education teachers and their experience shows mixed results. While some studies have found that more experienced teachers have higher burnout levels (Stathopoulou et al., 2023; Williams and Dikes, 2015), others have found that less experienced teachers have higher burnout levels (Brunsting et al., 2014; Duli, 2016; Faskhodi and Siyyari, 2018). It can be argued that experience may not affect teacher burnout, but other factors, such as workload, school environment, emotional issues, organisational justice, and student misbehaviour (El Helou et al., 2016; Mota et al., 2023). Mindfulness, self-acceptance, and stress reduction training can help prevent or relieve burnout and improve the well-being of special education teachers (Sun et al., 2019b).

Educational level is associated with burnout among special education teachers (Llorent and Ruiz-Calzado, 2016; Sezer, 2012). Those with higher degrees experience higher levels of burnout (Şen, 2023). However, Jamaludin and You (2019) argued that those with a bachelor’s degree experience higher levels of burnout. Higher educational levels may positively influence psychological empowerment and reduce burnout among special education teachers in inclusive education schools (Candeias et al., 2021; Rashkovits and Livne, 2013). Regardless of educational level, lack of administrative support, role conflict, and role ambiguity positively contribute to teacher burnout (Park and Shin, 2020). This leads to emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and reduced personal accomplishment among teachers (Karanfil and Khatami, 2021). Positive support from general education teachers and school administrators can help reduce burnout among special education teachers (Langher et al., 2017).

Teachers’ job specialisation affects their job satisfaction and burnout levels (Mustafa and Ismail, 2020). Many studies have shown that special education teachers are more susceptible to burnout than general education teachers in inclusive education (Hazan-Liran and Karni-Vizer, 2024; Hemati and Moradi, 2021; McGrew et al., 2023; Park and Shin, 2020; Stathopoulou et al., 2023; Suvorov et al., 2021). Special education teachers in inclusive schools face significant challenges and difficulties that go beyond their teaching duties (Nilsen, 2020). Moreover, burnout may vary among special education teachers themselves, depending on their subspeciality. The results from Al-Khatatba (2021), a study conducted in Saudi Arabia, showed that teachers of students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experienced higher levels of burnout than teachers of students with other disabilities. Tahar et al. (2023) found that teachers of students with learning disabilities in integrated schools had low levels of burnout. Teachers’ negative attitudes towards disability in inclusive schools are associated with higher burnout rates (Rohmer et al., 2024). Training and awareness programmes may help to change these negative attitudes and perceptions into positive ones (Sze, 2009).

The literature on burnout levels among special education teachers in inclusive schools is lacking, especially in the Arab context. Researching and understanding this issue in depth is crucial for developing effective support mechanisms and intervention strategies that can help reduce the long-term effects of burnout, enhance teachers’ well-being, improve job performance, and create a healthier work environment. There is a gap in research that explores how factors such as sex, experience, educational level, and subspeciality intersect in the impact of burnout among special education teachers in inclusive schools. Examining these intersections may provide a more accurate understanding of the challenges faced by teachers in inclusive education settings. This research can help to address these research gaps in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of burnout among special education teachers in inclusive schools and to attempt to reduce it by answering the following questions:

The current study followed the descriptive survey method because it was appropriate for the objectives and nature of the study. The descriptive survey method is considered one of the main methods used in behavioural and social research, focusing on examining reality or a phenomenon as it exists in the field and providing accurate numeric descriptions that clarify the magnitude and extent of that phenomenon (Darwish, 2018). For example, surveys are among the most widely used methods in quantitative research (Johnson et al., 2008).

The researcher calculated the means, standard deviations, percentages and levels of the special education teachers’ responses to the MBI’s items. Table 1 shows this results.

Table 1 illustrates that the level of emotional exhaustion among special education teachers is average, with an arithmetic mean of 2.974 and a relative weight of 49.60%. In addition, the data indicate that the level of depersonalization among special education teachers is very low, with an arithmetic mean of 1.819 and a relative weight of 30.30%. Regarding personal accomplishment among special education teachers, the data indicate that it is at an average level, with an arithmetic mean of 3.928 and a relative weight of 65.50%.

Overall, the level of burnout among special education teachers in inclusive schools was average, with a general arithmetic mean of 2.907 and a relative weight of 48.40%. This indicates that teachers suffer from an average level of burnout because it does not reach very high levels but still requires attention and improvement. These results highlight the importance of providing continuous support and ameliorating work strategies to ensure an enhanced work experience and reduce burnout among teachers.

To evaluate the differences between the average scores of special education teachers in inclusive education schools on the MBI according to the previous variables, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used. Table 2 demonstrates the results of the tests, indicating the significance of the differences between the groups.

Table 2 indicates that the overall model had a significant impact on the studied variables, with a Pillai’s Trace value of 0.833, F(3, 101) = 168.042, p < 0.001 and η² = 0.833. This suggests that the independent variables had a substantial influence on the dependent variables studied.

Moreover, sex had a notable effect, with a Pillai’s Trace value of 0.139, F(3, 101) = 5.450, p = 0.002 and η² = 0.139, indicating that sex significantly contributes to explaining differences in the dependent variables.

Regarding the experience variable, it did not show any significant impact, with a Pillai’s Trace value of 0.035, F(6, 204) = 0.602, p = 0.729 and η² = 0.017, indicating that experience did not significantly affect the dependent variables. Similarly, educational level did not reveal a significant effect, with a Pillai’s Trace value of 0.048, F(3, 101) = 1.708, p = 0.170 and η² = 0.048.

Conversely, the subspeciality had a significant effect on the studied variables, with a Pillai’s Trace value of 0.475, F(15, 309) = 3.874, p < 0.001 and η² = 0.158, indicating that the subspeciality notably affects the differences in the dependent variables.

As for the interactions between the variables, such as sex and experience, sex and educational level, sex and subspeciality, experience and educational level, experience and subspeciality and educational level and subspeciality did not have a significant effect on the studied variables.

Table 3 emphasizes the significant effect of sex on all the dependent variables measured. The results displayed a significant effect on emotional exhaustion (F = 6.048, p = 0.016 and η² = 0.055), depersonalization (F = 3.559, p = 0.062 and η² = 0.033), personal accomplishment (F = 15.061, p = 0.000 and η² = 0.128) and overall burnout level (F = 12.012, p = 0.001 and η² = 0.104). Pairwise comparisons revealed that males had markedly higher levels of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, personal accomplishment and overall burnout compared to females, with all differences being statistically significant at the 0.05 level.

In contrast, the experience variable did not show a significant effect on any dependent variables, with no statistically significant differences in emotional exhaustion (F = 0.445, p = 0.642 and η² = 0.009), depersonalization (F = 0.731, p = 0.484 and η² = 0.014), personal accomplishment (F = 1.171, p = 0.314 and η² = 0.022) and overall burnout level (F = 1.026, p = 0.362 and η² = 0.020). Similarly, the educational level variable did not show a significant effect on any dependent variables, with non-significant values for emotional exhaustion (F = 0.413, p = 0.522 and η² = 0.004), depersonalization (F = 2.893, p = 0.092 and η² = 0.027), personal accomplishment (F = 1.202, p = 0.275 and η² = 0.012) and overall burnout level (F = 0.061, p = 0.805 and η² = 0.001).

In contrast, the subspeciality variable had a significant effect on all dependent variables. The results were statistically significant for emotional exhaustion (F = 5.868, p = 0.000 and η² = 0.222), depersonalization (F = 5.078, p = 0.000 and η² = 0.198), personal accomplishment (F = 3.965, p = 0.002 and η² = 0.161) and overall burnout level (F = 4.625, p = 0.001 and η² = 0.183). Post-hoc comparisons revealed significant differences in favour of deafness and hearing loss specialist teachers compared to other subspecialities of disabilities. These differences highlight the importance of providing targeted support for teachers specializing in deafness and hearing loss to address elevated burnout.

Regarding the interactions between variables, the results showed varied effects. The interaction between sex and subspeciality had a significant effect on emotional exhaustion (F = 3.216, p = 0.010 and η² = 0.135), depersonalization (F = 1.106, p = 0.362 and η² = 0.051), personal accomplishment (F = 2.014, p = 0.083 and η² = 0.089) and overall burnout level (F = 2.889, p = 0.018 and η² = 0.123).

Post-hoc comparisons indicated significant differences between sex and across subspecialities in terms of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, personal accomplishment and overall burnout level. Female teachers specializing in deafness and hearing loss showed higher rates of emotional exhaustion compared to males, while males had higher rates of depersonalization, personal accomplishment and overall burnout in deafness and hearing loss specialty. These differences underscore the importance of tailored guidance and support to meet individuals’ needs based on their sex and specialization.

Regarding the interactions between academic degree and subspeciality, the results showed varying effects. They had a significant effect on emotional exhaustion (F = 2.330, p = 0.048 and η² = 0.102) and personal accomplishment (F = 2.969, p = 0.015 and η² = 0.126). However, the interaction between academic degree and subspeciality did not have a significant effect on depersonalization (F = 0.753, p = 0.586 and η² = 0.035) or overall burnout level (F = 2.173, p = 0.063 and η² = 0.095). These differences suggest that the interaction between degree and subspeciality significantly affects some aspects of burnout, highlighting the importance of considering these factors when providing support and guidance. Post-hoc comparisons revealed that the interaction between academic degree and subspeciality had a significant effect on emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment, with distinctions favoring those with a post-graduate degree compared to those with a bachelor’s degree in most subspecialities, particularly in the field of deafness and hearing loss.

Other interactions between variables, such as sex and experience, sex and educational level or experience and subspeciality, did not show significant effects based on these results. It can be concluded that sex and subspeciality variables had noticeable effects on burnout levels, while experience and educational level did not have significant effects.

The results found that special education teachers in inclusive schools suffer from moderate burnout. This result corroborates previous studies (Alaraideh, 2016; Brunsting et al., 2014; Squillaci, 2020; Stathopoulou et al., 2023). However, it differs from the results of some studies, such as Candeias et al. (2021), Panagouli et al. (2019) and Tahar et al. (2023), which found that the burnout level of special education teachers was low; the results of Ramdan et al. (2020) and Vinogradova et al. (2020), which found that the burnout level was moderate to high; and the results of Küçüksüleymanoglu (2011) and Williams and Dikes (2015), which found that it was high.

Arguably, the difference in the results of previous studies can be attributed to the timing and location of the study, as well as the inventory of burnout used. Aldosiry (2022) and Candeias et al. (2021) suggest that providing continuous support and improving work strategies by school administrators and general education teachers may help reduce burnout among special education teachers in inclusive schools.

The results indicated that male teachers had higher levels of burnout than female teachers. This result supports previous studies (Al-dyiar and Salem, 2013; Girgin and Baysal, 2005; Bayani et al., 2013; Gallegos and Barrios, 2013; Sari, 2004). The findings of Khajehnasiri et al. (2022) showed that higher levels of burnout among male teachers are associated with several demographic characteristics, such as lower income, number of children in their families and responsibilities. Moreover, Bozkuş (2018) believes that male teachers experience greater feelings of depression, worthlessness and failure than female teachers. Consequently, the need to design intervention programs to reduce male burnout in inclusive education environments is necessary for schools, students and teachers. The results of a study conducted on Chinese special education by Sun et al. (2019a) indicated that mindfulness training with social support helps reduce burnout and improve well-being for special education teachers.

Teachers of students with deafness and hearing loss have higher levels of burnout than their colleagues in other subspecialities. This may be due to teachers’ poor sign language qualifications (Desalegn and Worku, 2016) or a lack of facilities that meet the needs of deafness and hearing loss students (Almutairi and Alenezi, 2024; Bamu et al., 2017). Therefore, intensifying training courses for teachers on how to communicate with deafness and hearing loss students and providing educational environments that meet their needs are essential for improving their mental health.

The results indicated that there was a significant interaction effect between sex and subspeciality on burnout levels. Female teachers in the deafness and hearing loss specialization reported higher rates of emotional exhaustion than male teachers, while male teachers reported higher rates of emotional numbness, a lack of a sense of accomplishment and general burnout in the deafness and hearing loss specializations and other subspecialities. The type of disability in students is associated with higher burnout among special education teachers (Jovanović et al., 2019). Often, work conditions may influence burnout levels among teachers (Brunsting et al., 2023). Therefore, administrative support may help enhance self-efficacy and reduce burnout among special education teachers (Combee, 2014).

The results indicated that there was a significant effect of the interaction of educational levels with subspecialities on levels of emotional stress and a lack of a sense of accomplishment, as the differences favored those with a postgraduate level compared to those with a bachelor’s degree. Notably, burnout levels differ among teachers according to educational level. However, burnout levels are associated with different socio-demographic factors between males and females, such as age, educational level and marital status (Ahola et al., 2006).

Conversely, the variable of educational level and experience did not show any significant effect on any dimensions of burnout or on the total score. This result corroborates some studies (Tahar et al., 2023; Anastasiou and Belios, 2020). However, Williams and Dikes (2015) found that longer teaching experience is associated with teachers’ burnout. More experienced teachers may be less prone to burnout because they have flexibility in accommodating the students’ abilities and positive expectations for their students with disabilities (O’Brennan et al., 2017).

The current study aimed to identify the levels of burnout among special education teachers in inclusive education schools in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This study found that special education teachers suffer from an average level of burnout. It recommends the provision of training programs for teachers that contribute to reducing burnout and its negative effects on them. In addition, reducing work pressures and tasks assigned to teachers of students with disabilities may help provide a supportive and healthy work environment for them. Psychosocial support services should be available within all inclusive schools.