Since the second half of the last century, we have been witnessing a process of social transformation defined as computer literacy driven by the widespread adoption of personal computers and other digital devices in a wide range of work, training, and teaching activities, as well as in daily life. In the present century, programming has emerged as a new form of literacy, empowering individuals to learn to code or program in order to become active creators of digital information, rather than merely passive consumers (Kereluik et al., 2013).

Programming can be integrated into various educational and training contexts as it fosters the development of crucial cognitive skills (Papert, 2005). Programming sessions can therefore be integrated into a number of training, school, and educational activities as they can contribute to improving thinking skills in learning processes (Papert, 2005). Such skills involve the use of cognitive mechanisms (problem formulation, problem-solving, recursive thinking, abstraction, decomposition, error correction, and reasoning) essential for success in solving problems encountered in everyday life (Wing, 2006).

Individuals with intellectual disability (ID) are often excluded from learning complex skills like computer programming due to their unique needs and challenges (Wille et al., 2017). ID is in fact characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual and adaptive functioning, encompassing various degrees of cognitive ability and often co-occurring with other neurodevelopmental disorders and various genetic syndromes (Schalock et al., 2021). As a result, teaching programming to students with ID can be particularly challenging considering their different IDs, ages, learning levels, and behavioral characteristics. To date, there are in fact limited studies on teaching programming addressed to people with ID or autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (Luxton-Reilly et al., 2018). Research has shown that children and adolescents with intellectual disability (ID) or Down’s syndrome can acquire basic programming and computational skills through explicit instruction, the use of concrete manipulatives (e.g., physical coding blocks), and tangible interfaces (e.g., robots). These approaches have been found to improve cognitive abilities, including episodic memory, executive functions, visuospatial skills, social interaction, and emotional–motivational regulation (Besio et al., 2008; Businaro et al., 2014; Taylor et al., 2017; Taylor, 2018; Bargagna et al., 2019; González-González et al., 2019; Di Lieto et al., 2020; Kolne et al., 2021; Kert et al., 2022; Pérez et al., 2021; Shahid et al., 2022; Ellis et al., 2023; Baek et al., 2024; Graßl and Fraser, 2024; Kim et al., 2024). Adults with ID can also benefit from learning programming through guided activities, video tutorials, and explicit instruction, as demonstrated by Koushik and Kane (2019). Similarly, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and ID can develop computational thinking skills through explicit instruction, guided activities, and interaction with programming software platforms (Snodgrass et al., 2016; Albo-Canals et al., 2018; Ketenci et al., 2022; Sola-Özgüç and Altın, 2022; Gkiolnta et al., 2023). While various technologies and methodologies have been used to teach programming to individuals with ID and ASD, there is still a lack of consensus on the most effective assessment methods and instructional approaches. Currently, evaluation often relies on subjective observations and interviews with students and instructors (De Araújo and Andrade, 2021). “Explicit instruction” has emerged as a promising approach for teaching IT skills to this population (Israel et al., 2015a, 2015b; Sola-Özgüç and Altın, 2022; Baek et al., 2024). This approach involves breaking down complex tasks into smaller, more manageable steps, providing clear demonstrations, offering guided practice, providing immediate feedback to reinforce positive responses and correct negative ones, and promoting generalization of the learned skill to independent use (for a review see Hughes et al., 2017). Discrete trial teaching (DTT) aligns with the principles of an explicit instruction by promoting skill acquisition in a structured setting; instructor support (prompts) prevents students from making mistakes and therefore gradually learn new skills; as students gain proficiency, the instructor gradually reduces the amount of support, eventually allowing them to perform the skill independently and in different conditions; finally, this systematic approach maximizes learning and reinforces correct responses by providing frequent opportunities for practice and feedback (Hughes et al., 2017).

Several approaches can be used to teach programming, including robotics, block-based programming, unplugged programming, and authoring software. For this study, we chose to use authoring software, as it enables individuals without prior programming experience to create multimedia educational activities by combining various elements such as text, images, audio, and animations. JClic, (Xarxa Telemàtica Educativa de Catalunya, 1992) an open-source authoring software platform distributed under the GNU GPL license, provides a user-friendly interface for creating various types of interactive multimedia content.

Given that research is limited but growing, and is characterized by heterogeneity in methodologies, technologies used, and sample characteristics (e.g., age, cognitive-behavioral profile, and sample size), it presents limitations that currently do not allow for the sharing of solid evidence useful for educational practice. However, the potential benefits for individuals with ID resulting from learning computer programming encourage us to address this issue, as it can represent, along with other interventions, a means to increase self-esteem and efficacy, to strengthen the perception of oneself as a competent person, and to create new inclusive opportunities.

This study aimed to teach four young adults with ID how to use JClic authoring software to create multimedia projects. The primary goal was to develop their basic IT skills through a discrete trial teaching approach.

Figure 4 shows an overall view of the effectiveness of the treatment. All four participants successfully met the established training criteria, thus eliminating the need for further instruction.

In the training phase, an average of four sessions were conducted for each condition. In particular, we can observe that the first participant D maintained a fairly constant trend, she performed the task with great enthusiasm; initially, she tried to avoid following the maps and the procedure as proposed by the instructor, but gradually, she accepted the guidance provided through the prompts provided: 1 (modeling and total gestural and verbal prompt, textual prompt) and 2 (textual prompt, verbal prompt). Once she gained awareness of the task, already in condition 4 (no prompt) she began to build the program deviating from the prescribed steps and incorporating her own ideas. She demonstrated creativity by suggesting the use of new images. By the end of the training, she exhibited improved focus and organizational skills, planning her work and utilizing notes.

The second participant S also maintained a consistent level of engagement throughout the training. She closely followed the provided instructions and demonstrated enthusiasm for the activity.

The third participant M exhibited a more variable performance, often appearing insecure and reliant on prompts. She frequently displayed anxiety and agitation, requiring reassurance to complete the tasks. In condition 4 (no prompt), she became frustrated with errors but eventually found strategies to resolve them independently, ultimately meeting the mastery criterion.

The fourth participant G also met the training objectives, although her performance was more inconsistent. She often became frustrated with repetitive tasks and required additional motivation, such as computer games or music, to maintain engagement. With these additional reinforcers, she was able to complete the training successfully.

A follow-up assessment was conducted 1 month after the completion of the training. All four participants achieved a score of 80% or higher on the assessment, indicating maintenance of the acquired skills.

From the results obtained, we can state that teaching basic computer programming using JClic authoring software proved to be effective as the four participants successfully learned to create a project of complex associations aimed at creating multimedia educational activities.

While JClic was not specifically designed for individuals with disabilities, it was able to facilitate their access to computer programming and overcome certain barriers. This aligns with the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) framework, which emphasizes the importance of providing support to enable participation in various activities (World Health Organization (WHO), 2001).

The combination of JClic authoring software and explicit instruction proved effective in teaching computer programming skills to individuals with intellectual disabilities. This finding aligns with previous research demonstrating the efficacy of explicit instruction in teaching various skills, including academic skills (Butler et al., 2001; Knight et al., 2012; Bakken et al., 2021; Çapraz, 2023; Rodgers and Loveall, 2023; Schöld et al., 2023; Sulu et al., 2023), also for computer skills (Israel et al., 2015a, 2015b; Sola-Özgüç and Altın, 2022). Explicit instruction, which involves breaking down complex tasks into smaller, more manageable steps and providing immediate feedback, is a key component of effective teaching for individuals with intellectual disabilities. This approach aligns with behavioral chaining techniques, where tasks are broken down into smaller steps and taught sequentially (Hughes et al., 2017). The use of the aforementioned methodology has been previously proposed in educational approaches for individuals with disabilities, and the results of our study are a further confirmation of the effectiveness of how to teach this special population. They represent a novelty applied to what to teach, namely the acquisition of skills in the specific field of information technology, and to whom adult people with intellectual disabilities with associated behavioral problems.

The multimedia products created by the four participants with ID were subsequently used in rehabilitation activities for children and adolescents with various levels of disability. Their direct involvement, albeit in an executive role, in the creation of this basic multimedia software represents an innovative approach. This experience has empowered individuals with ID, enhancing their self-awareness and sense of competence in the field of IT. By contributing to the creation of educational materials, they have assumed a role of responsibility and gained recognition for their abilities. This aligns with the principles of inclusive education and promotes the dignity and wellbeing of individuals with ID. Accessing these conditions allows individuals with ID to assume more adult-like roles, facilitating the transition to adulthood and challenging the traditional image of individuals with ID as passive recipients of care. This approach, rooted in the principles of person-centered care, respects individual differences and promotes autonomy (Caldin and Scollo, 2018). It is also important to underline that the educational intervention described in our study was motivated by the participants’ genuine interest in learning computer programming. This intrinsic motivation served as a powerful driver for their engagement and progress. By tailoring the intervention to their individual needs and interests, we were able to further stimulate their desire to become more independent and self-directed. There is currently a broad consensus on the role for digital and information technologies in promoting inclusion for individuals with ID. The United Nations (2006) has recognized access to these technologies as a fundamental human right. It is equally true, however, that the process of digital literacy, and we could add, computer literacy of people with ID is still very far from being fully realized. Making people with ID computer literate is a challenging task, as the rapid advancements in technology often exacerbate the digital divide between those who can access and use technology and those who cannot (Lussier-Desrochers et al., 2017; Chadwick et al., 2019; Johansson et al., 2021). From a psycho-pedagogical point of view, basic computer literacy can also have important implications in the area of cognitive and adaptive rehabilitation to support people with various forms of intellectual and behavioral disabilities. In fact, computer programming can offer learning opportunities proposed through multifaceted stimuli in a context of greater originality, and cognitive and relational flexibility. While it should not replace traditional clinical and rehabilitative interventions, it can be integrated into a comprehensive support plan to enhance the quality of life for individuals with ID. All this can have an inclusive value that still needs to be better explored today.

Our study presents research on the effectiveness of an intervention applied to four women with ID, with varying learning levels and behavioral characteristics, on basic computer programming skills using JClic authoring software. The results obtained provide further evidence of the feasibility of interventions to promote computer programming education for individuals with intellectual disabilities. The reasons for these results are likely due to a combination of the programming approach using authoring software, the teaching methodology based on discrete trial teaching, which falls within the explicit instruction approach, and the characteristics of the participants, for whom this experience was both motivating and empowering.

However, our study also has a number of limitations. The sample used in this study was limited to only four female participants. To generalize the findings of the study, future research should replicate these results across diverse populations with ID (e.g., genetic syndromes) and various age groups.

Regarding the methodology, the maintenance probe was administered 1 month after the final independent performance. In the future, it would be necessary to plan for multiple follow-up periods (e.g., 6, 12, 18 months) to observe the long-term maintenance of acquired skills.

Considering that specific software for individuals with ID is often unavailable and that the choice is usually dictated by cognitive-behavioral characteristics of the individuals in relation to the software rather than the other way around, future research should include the use of different software for learning basic computer programming.

The challenge posed by this new area of learning can also have significant implications in the area of cognitive and adaptive rehabilitation to support people with various forms of intellectual and behavioral disabilities. Future research in this area should incorporate basic programming activities into individualized plans, tailored to the cognitive-behavioral characteristics and the level of support required, as computer programming can offer learning and inclusive opportunities.