Research on teacher training in music and movement includes studies that explore teacher’s preparation for music and movement pedagogy (Augustine and Huey Yi, 2016; Bautista and Ho, 2022; Salvador et al., 2022; Williams et al., 2023). In this sense, Augustine and Huey Yi (2016) analysed three required elements for music and movement teaching: content knowledge, professional development, and instructional strategies. A questionnaire was administered to 48 non-specialised preschool teachers. The results (Likert scale of five points) were averaged into content knowledge (M = 3.35) and instructional strategies in music class (M = 3.33). 25% of teachers participated in courses, workshops, seminars, and other teacher development programmes. It was concluded that effective teaching requires confidence and active participation in professional development programmes. In this same line of study on teacher preparation, the study of Bautista and Ho (2022) examined how early childhood education teachers are trained in music and movement. In this study, 1,019 preschool teachers from Hong Kong were surveyed to assess their previous training experiences in music and movement, their perceived usefulness, their level of trust, and their self-perceived preparedness to teach music and movement. The comparison variables were the amount of teaching experience and the level of education. The results showed that 70% of teachers did not receive any basic or ongoing training in music and movement. The study demonstrated and extended the argument of how the lack of music and movement teacher training and experience had a negative impact on pedagogy. As a result, the authors concluded that there is a need to strengthen teacher training in music and movement, especially for new teachers.

Other qualitative and mixed studies have given depth to the interpretation of the results and critical capacity about the study and its teaching implications. Salvador et al. (2022) examined the beliefs of seven music educators on teaching and learning in the area. This study conducted a descriptive analysis and used hierarchical linear models (HLM) to analyse time-sampling data of teaching practices in elementary school classrooms. Teachers shared the belief that we live in a musical world, and the educators should build an educational environment where children develop their abilities in singing, playing, and dancing. Results showed how music and movement were limited to younger children, and HLM analysis provided predictive implications for the use of singing and movement as teaching strategies. Limiting music and movement education to younger children hinders the development of a pedagogy that reveals the dynamic contributions of music education and educational possibilities it provides for non-specialist teachers. In this sense, Williams et al. (2023) analysed the effectiveness of a teaching intervention with music and rhythmic movement performed by generalist preschool teachers. They used the Rhythm and Movement for Self-Regulation (RAMSR) programme, attempting to improve self-regulation and executive function. A total of 213 children participated in the study. They were divided into two groups: an experimental group that followed a music and movement programme for 16–20 sessions over 8 weeks, and a control group that followed the usual programme. Variables of self-regulation and executive function were analysed through tasks and questionnaires. Results showed significant improvement in both over the first outcome. It became feasible for non-music educators to lead the music and movement programme. The studies found to share the need to integrate more teacher training in music and movement that prepares and motivates teachers to integrate it into their daily practice.

We note that research in music and movement teacher training is linked to the development of intrapersonal skills, such as self-regulation and performance, which facilitate their professional practice, and to the benefit of their pedagogical knowledge in the development of interpretative skills. This approach is relevant to the generalisation of music and movement teaching but requires competent analytical and expressive teacher training.

Another set of studies focused on the rhythm and movement methodology (Jacobi, 2016; Matthews et al., 2016; van Vreden, 2019; Marinšek and Denac, 2020). The information from these studies seeks evidence of the educational value of rhythm and movement methodology and its understanding through different approaches. Matthews et al. (2016) analysed rhythm pedagogy amongst 16 primary school educators through an examination of experiences and the construction of the role of rhythm in class. The authors conducted qualitative interviews to probe a description of rhythm in the educational process. The results included the teacher’s views on the meaning of rhythm and the importance and challenges of their teaching. They reflected the need to improve the academic curriculum by incorporating rhythmic activities, such as music, movement, and dance, for their educational and personal benefits.

In addition to the teaching implications, the skills associated with rhythm and movement methodology are integrated into the areas of cognition, perception, and corporal musical expression. In particular, the work of Jacobi (2016) analysed Montoliu’s instructional approach, which sets rhythm as the basis of music learning in the child through aural and kinesthetic experiences in place of written notation alternatives. He created the condition of rhythm and an attitude of performing music in motion. The historical design delved into the basics of Dalcroze’s Eurhythmics, being Montoliu, one of Dalcroze’s first students who took and integrated his method in America, which involved listening, singing, reading, coordination, and response. In addition to coordination development and muscle control, it also cultivated artistic temperament, attention, effort, seriousness, concentration, and interest in Dalcroze’s Eurhythmics amongst the students.

Regarding the Kodály vocal music method, Li (2023) analysed interactive methods and their influence on musical literacy training amongst university students pursuing a career in preschool education. This study involved 100 university students and 55 preschool children. They used observation, vocal performance, and soliloquy. The coefficient of effectiveness and the level of knowledge after the study established that 59% of preschoolers acquired a high level of knowledge with a 0.93 effectiveness parameter. Vocal production and song performances with movement and the Kodály method proved to be motivating experiences that enhanced learning, intonation, and song memorisation.

Although pedagogical tradition links rhythm and movement methodology to classical music, some studies have linked it to more contemporary musical styles. This new association integrated work not only on performative body skills, but also on the creative skills described by this music. Van Vreden (2019) examined the integration of jazz with the ‘bejazzled’ project and its teaching significance in preschool education through activities that stimulated spontaneity, inventiveness, openness, and curiosity for spontaneous music creation and motor response. The responses during the jazz learning process transcended musical boundaries and strengthened gross motor and listening skills and social and emotional development. Another study conducted by Marinšek and Denac (2020) analysed movement skills and rhythmic abilities in preschool education with three programmes: (1) Music and Movement, (2) Just Movement, and (3) Traditional Music Programme. The study included 62 children, ages 5–6, divided into an experimental group (N = 35) and a control group (N = 27), that lasted 5 weeks. The Test of Gross Motor Development and Rhythmic abilities were used. They assessed the effects of the integration of movement in music education and the impact of music on movement performance. The results determined that a regular daily music programme was the most effective way to promote motor and rhythmic skills in preschool. Systematic personal training that links music and movement in a programme helps to develop auditory, motor, and expressive skills.

The inclusion of music and movement as methodological axes in this review provides the empirical evidence and the benefits obtained from the application of historical methodologies, such as Dalcroze and Kodaly, and the incorporation of consolidated and contemporary styles, such as jazz and body methodology, as a way of understanding and interpreting music.

The bodily response evoked by listening to music in movement methodology has been collected in multimodal studies. Multimodal approaches that integrate musical and corporal practice are based on the intersection of common elements, such as the word that accompanies music, communication, representation, and dance, or the movement itself present in dance and the plastic arts (Mahayanti et al., 2020; Fortuna and Nijs, 2022; Li, 2023; White and Coyle, 2023).

Fortuna and Nijs (2022) investigated how different qualities of movement described the music and its understanding. The study participants were 34 children (aged 9–10), divided into two groups (control and experimental), who took part in listening and movement interpretation activities. As a pre-post test, children were invited to move freely to a piece of music, in addition to drawing a visual representation and explaining how the drawings and music were connected. The results showed how the movement influenced visual representations and how this strengthened music understanding in the analysis: music, movement, drawing, and language. Pedagogical contributions have identified multimodal interaction as a methodology strategy that enhances musical understanding. In another study, White and Coyle (2023) examined how educators used music from different cultures and genres with a multimodal approach (musical, literary, and corporal). They used the instrumental piece ‘Cryptozoologica’ (Jim Coyle) with Storyteller, and it stimulated physical, cognitive, and imaginative interactions amongst students, connecting music and movement with the narration of the story. The interrelationship—music, movement, and language—enhanced musical understanding and stimulated the follow-up of the story.

The impact of musical and bodily practice on the development of linguistic competence is also a subject of research in other multimodal studies related to learning lyrics. Mahayanti et al. (2020) analysed the philosophical foundations of language education in the lyrics of the ‘Baby Shark’ videos. They conducted an inferential content analysis to explore the connection between lyrics, movement, expression in the video, and background music. The linguistic analysis revealed the song required connecting verbal signs with non-verbal ones to be understood. Another socio-educational study (Porto et al., 2022) examined an inclusive service-learning experience amongst children in native Mapuche communities with intercultural literature activities in English (workshops, tours). The participants (children aged 6–14) from a rural multi-grade school in northern Argentinian Patagonia were led by university students and future English teachers. Engaging in multilingual forms of expression that combine literature, music movement, and creative arts had a positive impact on their learning and inclusion.

The analysis of the multimodal studies found allows us to argue for multimodality as a pedagogical approach with experiences that bring music, movement, language, gesture, and corporal expression as a strategy that facilitates the development of learning. Its consideration is essential as a tool in school systems where inclusion and equity are fundamental educational principles.

The study of the presence of music and movement activities in basic education has allowed to deepen into the needs of its curricular consideration and the methodological preparation of the teacher (Lau and Grieshaber, 2018; Otero Mayer et al., 2021; Ho and Bautista, 2022; Bautista et al., 2023). Otero Mayer et al. (2021) investigated teaching performance in classes with children aged 0–3 by examining the most frequent activities. They used a systematic review and the ITERS-3 scale (Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale, 3rd edition). A total of 340 students and 58 preschool teachers took part in this study. The results showed that the ‘Activity’ sub-scale had the lowest score. Some of the items with the lower quality were: fine motricity, art, music, movement, and drama games. The results urge us to rethink teacher training methods in preschool education. Additionally, Ho and Bautista (2022) examined the connection amongst music activities from 164 Quality Review reports from kindergarten teachers in China, along with the official curricular goals. They used deductive and inductive approaches, as well as the MAXQDA software for word frequency, descriptive, and co-occurrence analysis, with high levels of inter-reliability. The common activities were singing, rhythm, movement, and instrumental music. Creative and self-expressive activities were non-existent and there were discrepancies amongst curricular goals and in-class activities. Teaching implications emphasised the need for providing training in music practices to stimulate creativity. Although creativity is a difficult skill to assess, its stimulation and educational integration are essential for the development of understanding, autonomy, and musical and corporal expression. In this way, Lau and Grieshaber (2018) analysed the performance of a preschool teacher applying an integrated music approach that used movement and games to encourage learning and creativity. The participants were 19 children (ages 5–6) from a preschool class along with their teacher. The study was conducted in two separate stages, each consisting of four lessons. The non-participant observation, the pictures, and the interview showed the teacher’s pedagogical progress in the integrated approach and the fostering of music creativity. As it has been proven, learning motivation, autonomy, and creativity support the main characteristics of this methodology.

Research on the type and frequency of in-class music activities can improve teaching practices, student preparation, methodological orientation, and the identity of education systems. Bautista et al. (2023) investigated in-class music activities with preschool children (aged 3–6) from Spain and China. A survey was conducted amongst 398 preschool teachers, 199 from Spain and 199 from China, to determine the frequency of performance from 19 different types of music activities. These activities were categorised based on their content (type) and nature (potential of the activity to foster creativity). China focused more on singing and voice activities, while Spain focused more on rhythmic movement. There were more reproductive activities than creative ones performed in both countries. Mismatches were found amongst curricular goals and actual classroom practices, suggesting the need to revise both the curriculum and teacher training methods. In another study, Vicente-Nicolás and Mac Ruairc (2014) analysed the favourite music in-class activities of 4,700 primary school children. These activities were classified into singing, playing instruments, listening, reading and writing music, and movement/dance. The results revealed significant differences in preferred activities by gender, with girls preferring movement and dance activities.

We detected that music and movement activities are called by different names, including the words rhythm, movement, rhythmic movement, or dance, with different criteria. This reveals the need to establish and regulate a standardised nomenclature of movement in education that allows a better classification of activities.

Music and movement education is an ordinary educational activity. The lack of studies on movement assessment may influence the analysis and development of its teaching. Only Tidén et al. (2017) analysed how ‘ability’ is conceptualised, configured, and produced through 10 assessment tools across six countries. This research explored the types of motor abilities measured by each tool. The evaluated movements were related to traditional sports and physical activity. Nonetheless, open skills, rhythmic movements related to music, and activities with more flexibility were non-existent.

The analysis of music and movement activities allows the comparison of international curricula, pedagogical correlation, methodologies, and the need to increase evaluative research on music and movement education to improve its recognition and strengthen teacher training.

The relation of perception and rhythmic expression through the body in movement harbours an educational training that connects the child with his or her own corporeality, stimulating motor, cognitive, and emotional development. This basic educational contribution for all students acquires particular interest in students with special educational needs (SEN) through research, programmes, methods, and experiences. Motor awareness and self-regulation in music education were studied with the execution of Lithuanian folk awakening games working with children with special needs (Zvicevičienė and Aleksienė, 2015). The study describes these folkloric games as easy to dance with low-volume songs and movement. Familiarity of this popular musical repertoire facilitates its educational use. These games are considered educational and therapeutic, stimulating motor, communicative, and emotional abilities, including self-fulfilment and self-esteem. The cultural and self-formative values of this programme made it ideal for teachers and professionals in Special Education linking family and school learning as a resource for stimulating learner confidence in learning.

Ensuring student motivation in learning is a challenge of teaching. The studies of music and movement education in Special Education involve therapeutic methods to ensure the well-being, confidence, and motivation of students in physical, cognitive, and emotional learning environments. Williams et al. (2020) examined the effectiveness of a music education and therapy programme called Rhythm and Movement for Self-Regulation (RAMSR) on self-regulation and motor development amongst preschool children from disadvantaged communities. The study involved 237 children from eight kindergartens with daily sessions for 8 weeks. The intervention included: observation and reflection and followed Hemmeter’s protocol based on the analysis of social–emotional competence in early childhood. Results demonstrated improvements in self-regulation including emotional, attentional, and general classroom regulation, as well as assessed behavioural regulation and executive functioning. Additionally, school readiness was enhanced in terms of learning competency self-efficacy, as well as rhythm and movement. In this line, Xia and Li (2022) also analysed three music teaching methods with three preschool children (aged 5–6) with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Musical teaching activities enhanced attention, movement and rhythm imitation, cooperation ability, and teaching goals. The behavioural analysis showed an improvement in musical abilities and rule awareness and reduced inappropriate behaviours and negative emotions. These studies show how movement and rhythm help children to improve learning by focusing their activity, increasing their attention time, and managing their behaviour. In this line, another study investigated teaching interventions aimed at decreasing stereotypy and increasing correct responses during academic instructions for five children diagnosed with ASD (Cook and Rapp, 2020). Case studies included actions between standard instruction and the adapted educational intervention. For two of the participants, stereotypy decreased when the instructors used standard practices and interventions with continuous music and movement, improving appropriate responses. It shows that music and movement practices can strengthen certain cognitive and bodily areas of work that are not impaired by stimulating personal self-efficacy.

The correlation—music, rhythm, and movement—as a means of non-verbal communication can enhance autonomy, expression, and social interaction in children with SEN. Boas et al. (2016) examined the patterns and interactions of a child with deafblindness and a specialised teacher. They used systematic observation and audiovisual recordings. The child paid attention to the teacher during the activities that included music and rhythm. Music and rhythm improved the child’s vocalisation, touch, body contact, body movements, facial expressions, and emotion. The teacher who acted as a communication partner helped identify and interpret attention and communicative behaviours. Music, rhythm, and movement were used as a form of communication that eased understanding, sharing information, and access to the world.

In this sense, Jang (2020) studied self-expression from the movement perspective in intellectually disabled children and the way it affects their self-efficacy. The experimental group participated in an integrated movement and dance programme (for 12 months), while the control group participated in a music, art, and physical education class. Children who participated in the movement programme improved their confidence in self-expression contents (t = 3.087. p < 0.01), voice self-expression (t = 2.766, p < 0.01), self-efficacy (t = 3.940, p < 0.001), and preference for a task (t = 4.057, p < 0.001). Self-expression encouragement in intellectually disabled children through movement increased self-efficacy, which suggests the need for a multifaceted study. A multifaceted study that is practically applicable in the field of special education is needed. All these studies have shown how systematic rhythmic activity in Special Education enhances corporeality and autonomy, overcomes blockages and difficulties, and improves corporal expressive development and communication.

The possibilities of multimodal methods for improving comprehension and expression include consideration of experiences that enhance their educational use as a facilitating resource. The multimodal effect in music teaching in pupils with severe or multiple disabilities (aged 4–18) was studied by Bremmer et al. (2021). With a multiple-case-studies design, the approach combined music, tactile stimulation, movement, and visuals, trying to encourage a significant understanding of music. Three music teachers and a social worker participated in this study. The data were analysed using Schmid’s framework of ‘multimodal dimensions of children’s music experiences’: narrativity, sociality, materiality, and embodiment. The results argued Schmid’s framework revision and its adaptation for special education as a tool to design multimodal music lessons. In this line, Moula et al. (2021) investigated the well-being, quality of life, and sleep of 64 elementary school children with emotional and behavioural difficulties using an intervention programme with verbal and motor art therapies. They used questionnaires, interviews, participant observations, artwork, and biomarkers. Positive results in the reconduction of behavioural disorders confirmed the pilot trial to be ready for a larger trial.

The benefits of musical expression in self-awareness and improved self-expression are also reflected in social development, as Hogle’s (2021) study analysed how intersubjective or shared understanding of a music learner with ASD in a choir setting affected his musical learning abilities. The study suggested an educational relationship between the child and younger children through musical games, which allowed him to gain enough trust to do it with the entire ensemble. The display of musical agency through physical movement during the music-making process stimulated his understanding and autonomy. Musical relationships with his peers fostered affectionate, inclusive experiences. Building an inclusive learning space with motor and creative activities encouraged understanding, agency, and empathy. Similarly, Plavčak (2022) analysed the influence of movement in drama and role-playing activities to encourage social learning in moderate intellectually disabled children. This form of collective expression fostered trust, contentment, opportunities to build relationships, and improved empathy and communication amongst these students.

Therapy demonstrates in this review psychosocial evidence on the implementation of programmes using music and movement. This allows therapeutic approaches to be incorporated into educational research as educational approaches for the improvement of inclusion.