School readiness refers to the essential characteristics and foundational conditions that preschool-aged children need to benefit from the formal schooling they are about to enter (Gredler, 2000). It is widely regarded as a multidimensional concept that includes various aspects of physical and mental development (Gai and Liu, 2008). Research has revealed imbalances in the development of school readiness among Chinese children. For instance, children tend to show weaknesses in self-care, learning skills, peer interactions, emotional regulation, and social skills (Zhang et al., 2005), while being overprepared in areas such as cognition, general knowledge, and language (Gai et al., 2008). Both excessive and insufficient preparation for school can cause irreversible harm to children’s physical and mental health. Moreover, studies have noted that children who are neuro developmentally and behaviorally immature, struggle with self-regulation, or face attention difficulties often perform academically worse than their peers during the initial stages of school (Margetts, 2014).

In recent years, the transition from kindergarten to primary school has gained increasing attention from the Chinese government and education authorities, particularly regarding children’s under-preparedness and maladaptation during this critical period. To address these issues, Chinese education authorities have introduced specific policies aimed at facilitating a smooth transition. In 2021, the Ministry of Education issued the Opinions on Promoting the Transition from Kindergarten to Primary School (hereinafter referred to as “the Opinion”) (Ministry of Education, 2021). For the first time, this policy classified children’s school readiness into four domains: physical and mental readiness, life readiness, social readiness, and academic readiness. It also provided clear and actionable educational guidance for implementing school-readiness education in kindergartens and adaptation education in primary schools. As a result, the Opinion serves as a vital practical guide for kindergarten educators and early childhood education practitioners in China, equipping them to support school readiness and help children transition smoothly into primary school (Li and Li, 2022). This policy document forms the foundation of our research, which empirically examines the school readiness of Chinese children in the context of growing concerns about their physical and mental health and ongoing efforts to improve the quality of early childhood education in China. Based on our findings, we will propose policy recommendations to enhance the quality of the kindergarten-to-primary-school transition and promote children’s school readiness. These recommendations will focus on fostering collaborative and cooperative practices between kindergarten and primary school teachers.

Given the critical role of children’s school readiness in sustaining the benefits of early education and supporting their holistic development, current research has systematically examined the factors influencing school readiness. Early studies primarily highlighted the role of families, emphasizing that active parental involvement in transition practices facilitates a smoother transition to primary school. Higher levels of parental involvement have consistently been associated with better school readiness outcomes (Jeon et al., 2020; Puccioni, 2015). More recently, researchers have turned their attention to transition-related educational policies and schooling practices that support successful transitions. Drawing on the experiences of Western countries while considering the Chinese educational context, Chinese researchers have proposed targeted curriculum and teaching implementation programs for transitions. These include actionable guidelines on curriculum content, teaching methods, and evaluation systems (Xu and Hu, 2022; Ren and Zhao, 2022). Teachers play a vital role as designers, implementers, and evaluators of these policies and practices. Their quality and level of participation are directly linked to the effectiveness and completeness of the transition process. Since the transition from kindergarten to primary school spans two distinct educational stages, both kindergarten and primary school teachers hold a crucial position in facilitating this process. However, much of the existing research on transitions has disproportionately focused on kindergarten teachers, often assuming that school-readiness education is solely the responsibility of kindergartens and has little to do with primary schools. As a result, many current transition practices in China remain largely one-sided.

In China, the implementation of PLCs has gained momentum through educational reforms and policies aimed at enhancing teacher professional development and improving teaching quality. With the increasing emphasis on educational quality, especially in basic education, many schools have established PLCs—referred to in China as “teaching and research groups”—to foster collaboration and communication among teachers. Typically, PLCs are organized within schools, bringing together teachers of the same grade or subject to focus on the knowledge system, teaching methods, and learning characteristics specific to their school stage. Regular activities such as collective lesson planning, peer observations, lesson evaluations, and mentoring between senior and junior teachers are common, providing opportunities for collaboration and professional growth (Zheng et al., 2021; Zhu, 2019). In urban areas, where schools have better resources, PLCs are more systematically implemented, with dedicated funding and support from the government or schools. These PLCs often conduct regular activities, offering teachers the chance to reflect on and improve their practices. However, rural schools, which face challenges such as limited funding, time constraints, and insufficient training support, often struggle with PLC implementation. Moreover, due to the structure of China’s education management system, traditional PLCs are typically confined to a single school stage, lacking the cross-stage collaboration needed to address children’s development during transitions. As a result, these PLCs are less effective in supporting seamless transitions between kindergarten and primary school. Existing research highlights the potential of PLCs to not only enhance teachers’ professional development (Huijboom et al., 2021; Fu and Yan, 2015) and improve classroom practices (Andrews and Lewis, 2007) but also positively impact students’ academic performance (Thomas et al., 2015). By fostering collaboration among teachers, PLCs contribute to both teacher growth and student development (Andrews and Lewis, 2007; Fuligni et al., 2009). Recent empirical studies have further demonstrated a positive correlation between collaborative learning in PLCs and students’ academic achievement (Zhao et al., 2013). Specifically, PLCs and ongoing post-service guidance have been found to significantly enhance children’s school readiness (Son et al., 2013). Collaborative efforts between kindergarten and primary school teachers, particularly in curriculum alignment, have been identified as the most crucial factor influencing children’s future academic performance. Research suggests that the more diverse and collaborative the activities between kindergarten and primary school teachers, the faster children’s learning abilities develop during the transition from kindergarten to first grade (Ahtola et al., 2011). While direct research on the impact of teacher PLCs on children’s school readiness is still limited, existing evidence underscores the importance of collaboration between kindergarten and primary school teachers in ensuring successful transitions. This insight forms the foundation and inspiration for our research.

With the growing emphasis on children’s transition practices worldwide, fostering effective collaboration between kindergarten and primary school teachers has become a critical issue in advancing high-quality kindergarten education and supporting children’s holistic development. However, numerous factors constrain the practical establishment of teacher Professional Learning Communities (PLCs). Research highlights that at the heart of a successful PLC is the cultivation of a collaborative culture characterized by openness, democracy, mutual trust, and support among teachers (Shi et al., 2007). A PLC provides not only a framework of ideological concepts but also a set of behavioral patterns that promote collaboration (Hu, 2013). The cooperative spirit of mutual benefit and sharing is an essential element of this culture (Shi, 2013). Within such a collaborative atmosphere, teachers’ values and group visions can align, enabling open, trusting, and supportive communication. Teachers can candidly discuss teaching challenges, share experiences, and collaboratively explore solutions through shared inquiry (Du and Chang, 2018). On the other hand, existing research emphasizes that supportive conditions are a crucial factor in the development of PLCs (Stoll et al., 2006; Nelson, 2009). This support primarily stems from organizational structures, including a conducive community environment, shared time and space for collaboration, effective communication and learning systems, and access to necessary hardware and software resources. Additionally, support from both internal and external stakeholders is essential. Internally, mutual respect and collaboration among colleagues create a supportive atmosphere, while externally, understanding and encouragement from individuals such as family members and friends are vital for teachers’ professional growth. Despite these insights, significant structural barriers hinder collaboration between kindergarten and primary school teachers during the transition from kindergarten to primary school. These barriers include a lack of dedicated time for collaboration, insufficient resources to support joint efforts, and differences in educational practices and learning environments. These challenges severely limit two-way communication and collaborative practices between teachers at these two educational stages, impeding efforts to create a seamless transition for children.

The focus of early childhood education development in China has shifted from expanding access to enhancing quality. Within this context, the quality of the transition from kindergarten to primary school—and whether children can transition smoothly—has emerged as a critical yet challenging aspect of improving early childhood education. While the role of teacher Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) in student development and education quality improvement has been widely researched and recognized globally, their impact in the field of preschool education, particularly during the transition period between kindergarten and primary school, remains insufficiently understood. Consequently, there is a lack of corresponding empirical studies in this area. Chinese education authorities have emphasized the need for better communication and collaboration between kindergarten and primary school teachers to facilitate a smoother transition for children. However, in the absence of well-established policy practices and widespread successful examples, there is limited empirical evidence on how kindergarten and primary school teachers can effectively collaborate to maximize children’s school readiness. To address this gap, this study aims to examine the relationship between teacher PLCs established across these two school stages and children’s school readiness. Additionally, it seeks to explore how supportive conditions and a collaborative atmosphere can be fostered to strengthen this relationship, focusing on the perspectives of kindergarten and primary school administration.

The main research question of this study is: can teacher PLCs established across school stages by kindergarten and primary school teachers effectively promote children’s school readiness? This question is composed of three sub-research questions: (a) How do kindergarten and primary school teachers in China establish teacher PLCs? (b) Which content dimension of the teacher PLCs established across school stages by kindergarten and primary school teachers has a greater impact on children’s school readiness? (c) Under what conditions can teacher PLCs better support children in preparing for school entry?

The data and samples for this study were collected from Chongqing, China. Chongqing, the fourth-largest centrally administered municipality in China, is located in the southwest region of the country. This region lags behind the more economically developed eastern provinces, such as Beijing and Shanghai, in terms of educational development. Additionally, the southwest’s significant minority population and the diverse family backgrounds of its students require greater policy attention than is currently being provided. Chongqing, as the most representative province in the southwest, is home to a large population of school-age children, making it an ideal location for this study. Selecting children and teachers from Chongqing as survey respondents ensures both the quantity and quality of the sample population. For this study, five districts and counties in Chongqing were randomly selected. Stratified random sampling was then conducted based on the following characteristics: kindergarten location (urban or rural), type of kindergarten (public independent kindergarten, public primary school-affiliated kindergarten, or private inclusive kindergarten),¹ and rank (“model” kindergarten, “first-level” kindergarten, “second-level” kindergarten).² Based on these criteria, 17 kindergartens were selected for the study. From each senior kindergarten class, 15 children and two teachers were randomly chosen as participants. After excluding questionnaires with missing information, the final sample comprised 839 children and 67 teachers.

Table 1 summarizes the individual family backgrounds of the children and the basic characteristics of the teachers. Among the child sample, 52.8% were boys and 47.2% were girls. The vast majority were Han Chinese (97.6%), with 42.1% coming from rural areas. Most children were not the only child in their families (67.9%) and were primarily raised by their parents (85.6%). In terms of parental education, 40.2% of parents held a bachelor’s degree or higher, while the majority of families had an annual income of RMB 200,000 or less (82.4%). For the teacher sample, the majority held a bachelor’s degree (55.2%), and nearly all (89.6%) had teaching credentials, with only a small percentage (10.4%) holding other degrees. Most teachers were employed in urban kindergartens (61.2%) and public kindergartens (59.7%). Among the kindergartens, “First-level” kindergartens made up the largest proportion (64.2%), while “Second-level” kindergartens were the least represented (3%).

This study gathered information on children’s school readiness and teacher professional learning communities (PLCs) across school stages. Additionally, background information about children’s families was collected to provide context for the children’s data. During the data collection process, the researchers visited the selected kindergartens, conducted training sessions for teachers,³ and then organized the kindergarten senior teachers to fill out the Child School Readiness Scale. Given children’s limited reading and writing abilities, this study adopted a common practice in early childhood education for assessing school readiness (Xia, 2020; Hunter et al., 2018). Specifically, both head and assistant teachers observed children in their daily activities and subsequently answered questions related to school readiness. As primary educators in the preschool stage, kindergarten teachers play a key role in facilitating children’s transition to school and possess a comprehensive understanding of their school readiness. Therefore, they were deemed well-suited to answer the questionnaires on behalf of the children. To address potential subjectivity and reduce measurement errors associated with proxy responses, consistency checks were conducted between the responses of head and assistant teachers. After confirming no significant differences between the two sets of responses, the study relied on the head teachers’ answers to minimize potential biases in the data. Following this, kindergarten teachers were also asked to complete a questionnaire evaluating the quality of the PLCs collaboratively developed by themselves and primary school teachers. To merge the data from the children’s and teachers’ questionnaires into a single database, unified identification codes were pre-assigned to children and teachers, enabling accurate data matching.

First, to understand the situation of teacher PLCs across school stages in Chongqing, China, this study conducted descriptive statistical analysis to assess the overall situation of teacher PLCs across the three dimensions: shared vision, collaborative practice, and resource sharing. Based on this analysis, paired-sample tests were performed to determine whether the mean differences among the three dimensions of teacher PLCs were statistically significant. Second, to investigate the impact of teacher PLCs on children’s school readiness, the teacher sample was divided into three groups (high, medium, and low) based on the levels of teacher PLC operation. Differences in children’s school readiness were then compared across these three groups to explore the relationship between the levels of teacher PLC synergy and children’s school readiness. Third, a multiple regression analysis was conducted, with children’s overall school readiness as the dependent variable and the three dimensions of teacher PLCs across school stages as the independent variables. The regression model controlled for several variables, including the child’s gender, whether the child was raised by grandparents, annual family income, kindergarten type, and teacher-child ratio. Finally, to explore the heterogeneity in the relationship between teacher PLCs across school stages and children’s school readiness and to identify potential policy factors that could strengthen this relationship, supportive school conditions and the collaborative atmosphere were introduced into the regression model as moderating variables. Interaction terms were created between these moderating variables and the dimensions of teacher PLCs. The regression coefficients for the teacher PLCs measured their direct effect on children’s school readiness, while the coefficients for the interaction terms tested whether school-level policy factors moderated the relationship between teacher PLCs and children’s school readiness.

As shown in Table 2, the overall proficiency of the PLCs across school stages was found to be moderate (M = 3.775, SD = 0.938). Among the three dimensions assessed, the shared vision dimension scored the highest (M = 4.524, SD = 0.716), followed by the collaborative practice dimension (M = 3.582, SD = 1.201). The resource sharing dimension, however, scored the lowest (M = 3.408, SD = 1.322). To compare the mean scores of the three dimensions, a significance test for differences in means was conducted. Results from the paired samples T-test revealed that the shared vision dimension scores were significantly higher than those of both the collaborative practice and resource sharing dimensions (p < 0.01). Additionally, the scores for the collaborative practice dimension were significantly higher than those for the resource sharing dimension (p < 0.01).

These findings suggest that kindergarten and primary school teachers are conceptually motivated to collaborate and have begun experimenting with collective professional development activities. For instance, they have engaged in co-organizing joint teaching and research initiatives related to children’s transition across school stages and learning more about each other’s work. However, it is worth noting that concrete actions in resource sharing remain insufficient. This is evidenced by the low levels of sharing teaching practice examples and exchanging information about children’s physical and mental development.

To gain deeper insight into the specific challenges faced by kindergarten and primary school teachers in the lower-scoring dimensions of collaborative practice and resource sharing, this study further analyzed the individual items within these dimensions. Figure 1A illustrates the scores for individual items within the collaborative practice dimension. The slightly higher scores for items 1 and 4 suggest that the PLCs established by kindergarten and primary school teachers primarily focus on co-organizing transition-related teaching and research activities, as well as thematic activities, at a practical level. In contrast, the slightly lower scores for items 2 and 3 indicate that the practice of learning about each other’s work is less developed, with the joint development of transition-related thematic activities for children being the least developed.

Figure 1B. presents the scores for individual items within the resource sharing dimension. The results show that all four items scored low, highlighting poor performance in this area. Specifically, Items 1 and 2 scored slightly higher, indicating that kindergarten and primary school teachers are relatively better at sharing resources related to children’s physical and cognitive development. Conversely, the lower scores for Items 3 and 4 suggest that the sharing of teaching practice cases related to children’s transition and evaluation tools for children’s development is significantly underdeveloped.

Table 3 presents the results of a one-way analysis of variance conducted to test differences in children’s school readiness scores across different levels of teacher PLCs (grouped by factor scores). The results indicate that teachers with higher levels of operation in their PLCs tend to have students with higher school readiness scores. This trend was consistent across all dimensions of teacher PLCs, suggesting that each dimension plays a significant role in influencing children’s school readiness. However, it is noteworthy that in dimension 3, there was no significant difference in children’s school readiness scores between classrooms of teachers operating at the middle and lower levels of the PLCs. In other words, the impact on children’s school readiness becomes apparent only when teacher PLCs reach a high level of operation. These findings underscore the importance of significantly enhancing collaboration between teachers at both school stages—particularly in terms of resource sharing—to effectively promote children’s school readiness skills.

This study employs a series of multiple regression models to analyze the specific effects of teacher PLCs across school stages on children’s school readiness. Models 1 through 4 serve as baseline models, examining the effects of the three dimensions of teacher PLCs—shared vision, collaborative practice, and resource sharing—on children’s school readiness after controlling for contextual factors at the student, family, and teacher levels. Models 5 through 8 explore the moderating effect of supportive conditions on the relationship between teacher PLCs across school stages and children’s school readiness. Similarly, Models 9 through 12 investigate the moderating effect of a collaborative atmosphere on this relationship.

This study highlights the positive impact of teacher PLCs in promoting children’s school readiness in China, emphasizing the role of collaborative cooperation between kindergarten and primary school teachers. It provides valuable insights for Chinese policymakers and educators looking to optimize support for children’s transitions.

Given the significant impact of teacher PLCs across school stages, educational authorities should actively encourage the establishment of such communities. Since children’s transitions and their physical and mental development depend on the participation of multiple stakeholders, future PLCs should leverage the advantages of educators from different regions, school stages, and schools. It is also crucial to involve professionals who specialize in children’s physical and psychological development, encouraging their participation in transition practices to support children’s healthy growth (Hou and Zhang, 2024). Beyond providing basic structural support, emphasis should also be placed on creating a collaborative atmosphere. This requires strong backing from school leaders, both in kindergartens and primary schools, to foster engagement in PLCs and reduce hierarchical barriers (OECD, 2017). Leadership-level support provides a foundation for teachers to collaborate effectively (Yu et al., 2019). Moreover, addressing public biases against kindergarten teachers and promoting equal, respectful relationships between kindergarten and primary school teachers will help create a favorable social climate for deeper collaboration.

In particular, dimensions with a significant impact on children’s school readiness—such as collaborative practice and resource sharing—should be prioritized by education authorities and school administrators. Mechanisms for localized teacher exchanges, workshops, and sharing platforms should be explored. For example, when establishing teacher PLCs, kindergarten and early childhood educators could create growth profiles for children, documenting key aspects of their physical and mental development (e.g., height, weight, cognitive skills). These profiles could then accompany the children as they transition to primary school, helping primary school teachers better understand and support the children’s development. Additionally, a professional learning network (Engel et al., 2015) or peer mentoring group (Doan, 2021) could be established between kindergartens and primary schools, where teachers from both stages share experiences and resources related to children’s transitions and healthy development.

Given the limitations of China’s traditional education management system, achieving long-term sustainability for cross-stage teacher PLCs will require updating management practices. The Chinese government and educational authorities should work to establish an integrated management system that bridges the gap between different school stages. For example, funding support for activities related to the transition from kindergarten to primary school should be prioritized to prevent financial constraints from hindering collaboration. Additionally, district-level education authorities and teacher training schools could incorporate cross-stage teacher training into their routine work, providing ongoing guidance and opportunities for collaboration.

This study has several limitations. First, due to the limited literacy skills of children aged 3–6 years, the assessment of children’s school readiness in this study draws on the measurement approaches of existing studies and is primarily conducted through the evaluation of kindergarten teacher measurements, which may result in biased estimates of children’s school readiness. Future studies could employ a variety of methods to assess school readiness to reduce potential biases. Second, the study did not establish a causal relationship between teacher PLCs and children’s school readiness, only revealing a correlation. Future research should incorporate randomized controlled trials and advanced measurement techniques to explore causal links. Lastly, the study focused on 17 kindergartens in a single centrally administered municipality in western China, limiting the generalizability of the findings. Expanding the sample to include a broader range of regions could provide more comprehensive insights.