While it is well established that SDL is important for adult learners, there is no clear understanding of what prepares individuals to engage in SDL. SDL is driven by behavioral factors such as personality traits, self-efficacy, and cognitive processes such as task switching, inhibitory control, and working memory (Cronin-Golomb and Bauer, 2023). It is unknown whether certain individuals innately express high levels of SDL readiness and the ability to apply SDL (SDL application), or if specific learning experiences improve SDL readiness. Lounsbury et al. utilized a large sample of middle school, high school, and college students and found the trait of being a self-directed learner had a positive relationship with grade-point-average. Furthermore, the SDL trait has a positive association with several other personality traits such as conscientiousness; emotional stability; extroversion; openness; agreeableness; optimism; work-drive; vocational interest- including interest in science, math, and medicine; and cognitive aptitudes (Lounsbury et al., 2009). The association between SDL and personality traits such as agreeableness, conscientiousness, intellect/imagination, extroversion, and emotional stability was also found among adult learners enrolled in health professional programs (Slater et al., 2017). Independent factors such as age and previous level of education also demonstrate an association with SDL in adult learners and adolescents (Slater et al., 2017; Uus et al., 2021). Indeed, an individual’s ability to utilize SDL varies throughout their lifetime (Cronin-Golomb and Bauer, 2023). It is also possible that social determinants of learning, such as economic stability and social environment, can impact SDL as this has been associated with academic performance (Rasberry et al., 2019; Sanderson et al., 2021). Together, these indicate that a mix of personal and environmental factors plays a role in SDL. This interpretation is also supported by a recent systematic review of self-directed learning in undergraduate students (Wong et al., 2016).

The understanding of SDL has evolved due to variations in its implementation at differing educational levels and fields. This has led to a lack of standardized guidelines aimed at developing and assessing SDL skills among students. In response to this, Taylor et al. underwent a systematic review of SDL assessment in health professional programs (Taylor et al., 2023). They developed a seven-component SDL framework that builds upon Knowles’s original conception of SDL after a review of the literature. This framework, while specific to health professions, can be adapted for broader use in STEMM education. We briefly elaborate on the framework here; for a more complete discussion, please see the original sources (Knowles, 1975; Taylor et al., 2023).

Individuals must:

SDL has been assessed in a variety of ways. Self-assessment and perception-based methods are the most common (Cadorin et al., 2017; Taylor et al., 2023). However, other methods, such as knowledge- and reflection-based assessments, have been utilized. Moreover, SDL itself can be measured by exploring the SDL behavioral trait, readiness to apply SDL, and SDL application (Ricotta et al., 2022). Indeed, Taylor et al. (2023) found that it may be beneficial to measure SDL in multiple ways, as assessing multiple aspects of SDL was found to improve study quality (Taylor et al., 2023). The benefit may be due to an increase in the amount of data available or the use of an assessment less prone to social desirability response bias.

Participation in formal educational programs such as Advanced Placement (AP), International Baccalaureate (IB), and dual enrollment courses (where high school students are enrolled in college or university courses) can significantly increase interest in STEMM careers and pave the way for entry into the STEMM field (Jewett et al., 2022; Smith et al., 2018). AP, IB, and dual enrollment are considered advanced offerings for high school students, but their innerworkings differ. Both AP and IB programs are designed to provide high school students with coursework that aims to develop critical thinking, analytical skills, and a deeper understanding of fundamental concepts. AP courses typically occur over a year and multiple courses can be taken at a time, while IB is a program that encompasses six courses across two years and is recognized internationally. Even though these programs have different structures, they have many similarities. For example, students who participate in AP and IB are typically high-achieving students (Warne, 2017), and prior research indicates that these students achieve similar graduation success at college (Schumacker, 2014). Students in both programs can take a subject examination after completion and may be granted credit based on the policies of the institution of higher education they attend. While IB is a comprehensive program, both educational experiences are taught by high school teachers. In contrast, depending on specific state and districts’ policies, dual enrollment may occur in a college or university setting alongside adult learners, and successful completion results in postsecondary credit. Due to the setting, individuals are expected to be more self-directed in their learning. Indeed, higher levels of self-directed learning skills are associated with academic success in college (Tekkol and Demirel, 2018).

Participating in advanced offerings have been associated with college readiness and can improve pre-college competencies (An, 2013; Wyatt et al., 2015). However, opportunities to improve pre-college competencies exist outside the formal educational process. Taking part in OPPs focused on STEMM early in the educational process can foster a sense of inclusion and encourage students to continue to pursue STEMM in higher education (DuBois et al., 2011; Jung et al., 2023; Rocha et al., 2022a; Rocha et al., 2022b). However, it is unknown if participating in these programs is positively associated with behaviors linked to academic success, such as the components of SDL. We hypothesized that AP, IB, dual enrollment, and STEMM OPPs are potential opportunities for establishing SDL and associated skills in the academic life of high school students. It is further speculated that the aforementioned programs help to reduce achievement gaps and help students with successful college matriculation and completion.

In this study, we explore the following questions among matriculating college students:

The Oakland University Institutional Review Board approved this study in August of 2022 (Protocol # 2022-346). All participants were informed of confidentiality and gave informed consent before participating in the study.

We recruited 339 first-year college students who graduated from a U.S. high school between September and October 2022 through Centiment LLC’s data collection platform, as well as by word-of-mouth. All participants were screened to ensure interest in STEMM-related fields, and the data presented in this manuscript are part of a larger study.

Due to a technical error made when designing the survey attention check question, only 288 of the 339 participants were allowed to complete the situational case and the SDL scale by Lounsbury et al. (2009). As such, those analyses are focused on individuals that completed these sections.

Demographic information gathered from participants can be found in Table 1. Specific components of demographic information include race and ethnicity, gender, age, estimated household income, number of individuals within the household, first-generation college status, and ZIP Code. For our analyses, individuals who self-selected Black/African American, Pacific Islander, Hispanic, and Native American were considered underrepresented minorities (URM) according to the National Science Foundation definition (National Science Foundation, 2023). Educational opportunities explored are 1) participation in AP or IB, 2) dual enrollment status in high school, and 3) OPP experiences. In this study, both AP and IB programs were considered as one variable due to the programs occurring in a high school setting, being taught by high school teachers, and similarities in student populations, outcomes, and requirements for students to achieve a certain score to qualify for college credit or being allowed to pass out of a college course. Moreover, the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 recently updated by the National Center for Educational Statistics combines AP and IB program participants to report the results of their studies (Dalton et al., 2018). This differs from dual enrollment programs as they may occur in a college or university setting, successful completion leads to postsecondary credit, and most differently from AP/IB, are taught by college or university faculty.

A survey was administered to respondents comprised of questions regarding the quantity of different OPP experiences (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 experiences) and measuring SDL in three ways: the SDL behavioral trait (Lounsbury et al., 2009), SDL experiences, and SDL application (see section 2.5 and Supplementary material). Individuals were asked the following questions to assess OPP experiences:

This allowed us to explore how increasing the number of OPP experiences impacted SDL. The type of OPP experience was not included as a factor in the analysis. The survey questions can be found in the Supplementary materials.

SDL is a complex process that involves a range of competencies, including self-assessment, goal setting, identifying resources, and evaluating outcomes. Multiple assessment methods should be used to measure SDL accurately. Indeed, Taylor et al. recently published a systematic review where they explored the types of SDL assessments in healthcare education research (Taylor et al., 2023). Higher quality was associated with studies that utilized more than one assessment or those that were knowledge-based rather than perception-based (e.g., focus groups, reflections, SDL readiness surveys, etc.). Thus, we utilized the theoretical framework postulated by Taylor et al. and measured SDL attributes within the study population using three distinct approaches. Specifically, we used 1) SDL experience, 2) the SDL behavioral trait, and 3) SDL application. This approach improves the validity and reliability of the overall measurement, caters to different learning styles and backgrounds, provides richer data for analysis, and aligns the assessments with the theoretical framework of SDL. By using various methods, educators can gain a better understanding of a student’s SDL abilities in different contexts and ensure that the assessments are based on a solid conceptual foundation. The relationship between the scales is illustrated in Figure 1. Moreover, all three scales were mapped to the SDL framework as shown in Figure 2.

Neighborhood SES was calculated due to geographical location impacting educational attainment and opportunities (Banerjee et al., 2022; Levinson et al., 2021). ZIP Code information supplied by the subjects in the demographics portion of the survey was utilized to calculate the SES score for the neighborhood that the participants lived in based on U.S. census data. For details on this calculation and reasoning behind the measure see Hurse et al., 2023 (Hurse et al., 2023). Individuals’ scores were normalized to their state SES metrics, arranged in ascending order, and partitioned into low or high SES groups (based on a median-split procedure). Nine individuals failed to provide their ZIP Code and were not included in the analysis involving this variable.

All analyses were performed using IBM-SPSS statistics software (Version 29). A traditional threshold value of p-value of < 0.05 was used to determine statistical significance. These were uncorrected due to being planned comparisons in this exploratory investigation, but this decision is discussed as a limitation in this paper (see section 4.5). Pearson correlations were run between the three aforementioned SDL measures, the demographic variables, and the educational experiences. Two-sample independent proportions test were run to compare the SDL experience types between those who participated in AP/IB programs and those who did not and between dual enrollment participants and those who did not participate in dual enrollment.

We first explored the correlation between SDL experiences and demographics. We found that while race, ethnicity, neighborhood SES, first-generation status, and gender did not correlate with SDL experiences, household income had a weak positive correlation with SDL experiences (r = 0.116, p = 0.033).

The relationship between education and SDL experience was then analyzed. There was a poor, non-significant correlation between the number of OPP experiences and participants’ SDL experiences (Table 2). This was also true for AP/IB and SDL experiences. However, there was a weak, statistically significant correlation between components of SDL experienced by participants and dual enrollment (r = 0.206, p < 0.001).

We next explored if there were particular components of SDL that individuals who are dually enrolled are experiencing compared to those who were not dually enrolled. A higher proportion of those who were dually enrolled reported higher competencies in “receiving feedback on their information seeking skills” (p = 0.044; Table 3) and “incorporating and improving information-seeking skills based on the feedback” (p < 0.001; Table 3). Moreover, “reporting information to others” approached significance for those who were dually enrolled (p = 0.051; Table 3). While experience with SDL did not correlate with AP/IB (Table 2), those who enrolled in AP/IB reported incorporating and improving information-seeking skills based on feedback at a higher incidence than those who were not enrolled in AP/IB (p < 0.001; Table 3).

Correlations were run to explore the relationship between the number of OPP experiences and the SDL behavioral trait. There was a poor, non-significant correlation found between these two variables (Table 2). Moreover, the relationship between AP/IB and the SDL behavioral trait was also explored. There was a weak, statistically significant correlation between the SDL behavioral trait and AP/IB (r = 0.145, p = 0.014). As the correlation between those who participate in AP/IB and those who report passing their AP/IB exam is very strong (r = 0.963, p < 0.001), we wanted to explore the relationship between the SDL behavioral trait and exam passage. The relationship becomes slightly stronger when focusing on those who report passing their AP/IB exams (r = 0.159, p = 0.007). In contrast, all correlations between the SDL behavioral trait and the other variables were statistically non-significant (Table 2).

An analysis was run to assess how well the situational judgment case correlated with the various educational and demographic variables (Table 4). AP/IB participation had a weak and significant correlation with the situational judgment case (r = 0.202, p < 0.001). This increased slightly for those who passed their AP/IB exam (r = 0.217, p < 0.001). The other demographic factors were found to have a negligible, non-significant correlation with the situational judgment case (Table 4).

While dual enrollment provides experiences with aspects of SDL, it does not appear to promote the development of the SDL behavioral trait. However, individuals who participate in AP/IB are more likely to possess the SDL behavioral trait and subsequently are more likely to apply SDL in a situational assessment. Both of these advanced programs intend to prepare students for future academic challenges; however, their populations and/or contributions to developing essential learning skills differ significantly. This could suggest that the structure and nature of the programs inherently support and draw different learners or aspects of learning, but this needs further research to clarify.

We were not surprised to find that participants who were dually enrolled tended to have more experience with performing self-directed learning. Self-directed learning (SDL) is a cornerstone of adult learning, and individuals taking college courses should have more experience with SDL as dual enrollment courses may sometimes occur in a collegiate learning environment. While enrollment in AP/IB does not correlate with SDL experiences, participating in AP/IB correlates with the behavioral trait of being a self-directed learner. This may indicate that those who are naturally higher in this trait may be drawn to AP/IB. Moreover, when given a situational judgment case that maps to components of SDL, only AP/IB participation correlates with performance on this measure. This may be because AP/IB select for individuals high in the SDL behavioral trait, and in turn, these individuals do better on the cases because they are self-directed learners. Suldo et al. found motivation and cognitive engagement increased AP/IB student success, which is similar to what is found in successful college students (Suldo et al., 2018). This may be further enhanced within our sample as we focused particularly on those interested in progressing to STEMM careers and the rate of those that endorsed “taking an AP/IB course” and “passing the AP/IB course” is much higher than findings from the general population taking AP/IB courses. Interestingly, OPPs did not correlate with any measures, and this work identifies opportunities to improve the promotion of SDL in OPP educational exposures.

We found SDL application and the SDL behavioral trait did not vary based on demographic factors such as neighborhood SES, income, race, and/or ethnicity (Tables 2, 4). These findings are similar to the results found when self-regulated learning was measured in college students (DuBois et al., 2011). Moreover, Tekkol and Demirel found income did not have a relationship with SDL skills in college students (Tekkol and Demirel, 2018). However, for our study, income does appear to impact SDL experiences among the respondents. Those with higher incomes may be able to gain additional opportunities that provide exposure to more SDL experiences. However, students from lower familial SES background, impacted by household income, possess a component called grit. Grit is a quality that motivates them to achieve; however, these individuals may lack critical resources such as access to mentors, knowledge of structural components, and favor with gatekeepers which are essential to academic success (Kundu, 2017; Williams et al., 2019). Indeed, family income and SES has been shown to impact academic achievement (Suldo et al., 2018; Workman, 2022). Our data, however, reiterates the fact that students, regardless of demographic background, can possess the SDL behavioral trait and apply SDL. Beyond the current focus on SDL, factors such as agency, transitional knowledge, or interventions that promote a positive emotional experience are required for academic success in secondary education (Jury et al., 2017; Kundu, 2017; Williams et al., 2019).

SDL has been identified as an educational asset since the 1970s. Knowles’ seminal work on self-directed learning highlights its importance in educational settings. It emphasizes how SDL encourages students to take responsibility for their education and fosters critical thinking skills (Knowles, 1975). SDL is essential in high school and college to promote independence, critical thinking, and lifelong learning (National Science Foundation, 2023). SDL empowers students to explore their interests at their preferred pace. This results in developing problem-solving skills, adaptability, and efficient learning of new information and abilities. Our work finds participating in dual enrollment correlates with SDL experiences; however, we propose that SDL experiences need to be promoted throughout high school and into college. Ways by which SDL are introduced and cultivated may need to vary as Uus et al. found SDL self-efficacy and SDL readiness vary based on age and year in school, geographical location, and gender in adolescents (Chen et al., 2022; Uus et al., 2021). A framework must be developed regarding the activities that constitute SDL and distributed to educators. A recent Dutch study found that the methods employed by teachers to develop self-directed learning, as well as an understanding of self-directed learning, varied. Moreover, the culture of the school impacted interpretations of SDL (Voskamp et al., 2022).

Scholarship on OPPs shows that individual programs have been useful in promoting self-efficacy, a sense of belonging, and increasing retention of students in STEMM (Daniels et al., 2019; Kuchynka et al., 2022; Rocha et al., 2022a). However, it is unknown if OPPs promote pre-college matriculation competencies in adolescents. We became interested in exploring these competencies after identifying that high school students exhibited aspects of SDL due to participation in the Oakland University William Beaumont online enrichment program (Hurse et al., 2023). We have found OPP participation promotes perceptions of college readiness (publication in preparation). In fact, many of the skills learned from OPP experiences map to college readiness as defined by Conley (Conley and French, 2014). Due to this we were surprised to discover having additional OPP experiences did not correlate with SDL. Previous work illuminates a relationship between SDL, instruction method, and student interest. Schweder and Raufelder found that the incorporation of two self-directed intervals during the school year for German secondary students increased self-efficacy and interest throughout the school year (Schweder and Raufelder, 2022). It may be that specific types of OPP experiences promote SDL due to differences in instructional methods. It may also be that specific instructional methods employed during OPPs fail to engage with aspects of SDL. Many of the individuals in this study participated in multiple types of OPPs, which was not the focus of this investigation (see limitations section below). Thus, the mechanism of instruction during OPP experiences may play a role in these findings and remains an area of future exploration and investigation.

Through this work, we have identified an opportunity to improve OPPs through the promotion of SDL related skills. OPPs are positioned to promote pre-college matriculation standards beyond subject matter knowledge. Incorporation of problem-based learning activities or research and design activities can be used to bolster SDL experiences. OPPs can also be used to emphasize the importance of SDL for college success and beyond.

While our study has many strengths such as providing insights into rigorous SDL measurements and the relationship between SDL and various educational experiences, there are limitations. First, we did not evaluate how each of the individual educational experiences contributes to each of the seven components of the SDL framework. Moreover, the measures did not equally capture all seven components of the overall framework (Figure 2). We believe our use of multiple measures helps reduce this impact, but future studies call for a more focused approach to the different types of program structures.

We were unable to parse out the nuances between different types of OPPs, and AP/IBs given the diverse nature of these programs nationally. However, we do not see it as a major limitation because of the way educational research is studied. Student study populations typically have several experiences outside of formal education that they draw upon from their social, resistant, and navigational capital. These, among many others, could help them become self-directed, which they then would apply into their education and career aspirations (Strawn, 2003). Another limitation of our study is that our groups are not mutually exclusive. A student may have experience in more than one program whether OPPs, AP, or IB. Although, the results are reliable, they may be partially confounded due to students having multiple experiences. While power is sufficient for the overall analysis, it is not for more advanced statistical techniques. Future studies could benefit from increasing sample sizes and integrating our insights statistically by employing a stepwise regression approach that inputs the most explanatory factors first.

Another limitation may lay in our method of calculating SES based solely on the students’ provided ZIP Codes. While commonly used, this approach oversimplifies the complex nature of communities. Future research should consider a more multifaceted approach, exploring familial SES, neighborhood SES, and the SES of the area surrounding the school. These interconnected variables could allow researchers an even clearer picture.