The COVID-19 pandemic has heralded the reality of education 4.0, which demanded a shift in school leadership. After the disruption caused by COVID-19 globally, school leaders engaged in rapid sense-making and change implementation processes to cope with the effects (Bush, 2023). As a result of the pandemic crisis, Gyang (2020) advocates adopting the Community-Based Education Leadership model by basic school leaders to promote effective teaching and learning. Furthermore, the pandemic resulted in school leaders having to learn new technologies and provide teachers with support in using these technologies to enhance teaching and learning (Müller et al., 2022; Abulibdeh et al., 2024; Saleem et al., 2024). In addition, education 4.0 requires an inclusive and nurturing learning environment, resources for learning, constructive feedback, and a vision of academic excellence (Yokuş, 2022; Moraes et al., 2023; Abulibdeh et al., 2024), thus creating a new model of educational leadership.

African education and the 4.0 are topics of significant importance for Africa’s development (Ebekozien et al., 2024). The continent is actively working on aligning its education system with the demands of the digital age to equip its citizens with the skills and knowledge needed to thrive in the 4.0 era. Adapting African education to 4.0 will be crucial for the continent’s economic growth and global competitiveness (Ebekozien et al., 2024; Raji et al., 2024). As technology advances, ongoing efforts to modernize the education system will remain essential. Despite these efforts, challenges still need to be addressed, including access to quality education in remote areas, funding constraints, and teacher and school leader training to effectively integrate technology into the classroom (Bayode et al., 2019; Awodiji and Katjiteo, 2023; Abulibdeh et al., 2024).

Africa and other continents are going through a tremendous world-shaking shift due to the emergence of Industry 4.0 (Mhlanga and Moloi, 2020; Mohamad et al., 2020; Alade et al., 2021). A four-dimensional industrial revolution (4.0) occurs when biological, physical, and digital technologies come together (World Economic Forum, 2017; Lee, 2021; Gadre and Deoskar, 2024). Aside from covering significant technological developments, 4.0 also covers robotics, 3D printing, artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoTs), quantum computing, automated systems, blockchain technology, biotechnology, battery technology, and nanotechnology (Falabiba et al., 2014; Lee, 2021). A significant component of Industry 4.0 is integrating the internet and emerging technologies, which will lead to an unprecedented paradigm shift in the world of work (Gürdür Broo et al., 2022). Industry 4.0’s full potential depends on its ability to provide people with individualized expertise and skills. Educational institutions should address this challenge (Abulibdeh et al., 2024). Digital data integration in basic schools has been suggested to support dominant school administration and management cultures in the digital age by serving as a tool for (self)control (Selwyn et al., 2015). Thus, the need to assess and develop the digital capacity of basic school leaders to lead a successful school in post-digital era.

Leadership development in the 4.0 era has become increasingly important for basic school leaders due to the evolving educational landscape and technological advancements. School leaders need diverse skills to effectively navigate the challenges and opportunities the 4.0 era presents. Basic school leaders in the 4.0 era have some critical leadership development needs. Education 4.0 emerged in response to 4.0 and reflects the emerging demands in education, resulting in a change in pedagogy, culture, and managerial transformation of schools (Çetin and Karsantık, 2022). Thus, school leaders must possess relevant skills to lead schools in the 4.0 era. Uys and Webber-Youngman (2019) identfied several 4.0 leadership skills in the literature including critical thinking, creativity, problem-solving, people management, coordination with others, emotional intelligence, judgment and decision-making, service orientation, negotiation, cognitive flexibility, innovation, leadership, agility, adaptability, and resilience. In the industrial era of the 4.0, school leaders are expected to possess three qualities namely, the ability to engage in collaboration and human relations, the ability to think creatively and innovatively, and the ability to use learning tools per technological advances (Kin et al., 2020; Raksanakorn et al., 2022; Tetteh, 2022). To improve school leadership, Raksanakorn et al. (2022) identified five components which are, knowledge and ability, leadership skills, academic skills, morality and ethics, modern skills, and characteristics. Creative problem-solving, communication, digital literacy, intellectual, social, and coping abilities, and discipline knowledge are among the 4.0 skills (Chaka, 2020; Potokri, 2022). Leaders must embrace transformational, people-oriented, and charismatic leadership styles to thrive in 4.0 (Coopasamy and Botha, 2022). Moloi and Mhlanga (2021) identified the underlying elements driving 4.0 in education. It was found that South African education is not prepared for the 4.0 and that only a minority of school leaders were aware of 4.0 and its implications (Moloi and Mhlanga, 2021). Hence, school leaders must embrace 4.0 skills via professional development to survive in this changing era to lead a sustainable and successful school.

It is important for school leaders to receive professional development to keep up with the rapid changes in the world and continually improve their practice (Schleicher, 2012). Providing school leaders with appropriate professional development and acknowledging their crucial role in improving student achievement are critical factors in developing school leaders (Schleicher, 2012; Levin et al., 2020). Leaders in many schools reported having access to leadership-related training. Researchers have demonstrated that school leaders benefit from job-embedded professional learning because they can apply their learning on the job (Levin et al., 2020; Tetteh, 2022). Thus, the role of leadership development in the 4.0 era must be considered to lead successful schools in the changing era.

South Africa is the leading country involved in studies on leadership and 4.0. Other African countries have done scant research on the topic. Moreover, most South African studies focused on school leadership’s role in adopting 4.0 technology. A balanced understanding of the topical area will require future research into other themes (Tetteh, 2022). Naidoo and Potokri (2021) investigated the leadership skills that female leaders in South African schools need to succeed in the 4.0 era. Adequate leadership development support needs to be improved in South African schools, preventing leaders from becoming 4.0-aligned (Naidoo and Potokri, 2021). The lack of 4.0 skills was a significant challenge facing South Africa in adopting 4.0 for education and economic development (Bayode et al., 2019). In South Africa, school leaders need opportunities to develop technology competencies, hardware skills, and 4.0 technology skills (Letuma, 2022). Despite their ability to install software, surf the internet for information, and use web tools to receive online information, school leaders needed help to create spreadsheets (Letuma et al., 2023).

In Ghana, schoolteachers’ continuing professional development needs were explored amid current changes (Abakah et al., 2022). The study found that Ghanaian teachers need Information Communication and Technology (ICT) skills for effective teaching. In Nigeria, a study indicated that school leaders need more knowledge and skills in 4.0, 3D printing, AI, automation, and smart boards. In addition, school leaders need high competence in basic digital applications (Awodiji and Naicker, 2023). In performing instructional leadership responsibilities by school leaders, Awodiji O. A. et al. (2022) examined the e-supervision of instruction facilities in Nigeria and found that technologies are available to perform their supervisory roles in the changing learning environment. However, school leaders indicated that they require more training in using these e-facilities to perform adequate supervision (Awodiji O. A. et al., 2022). School leaders need opportunities to develop technology competencies, hardware, and 4.0 technology skills (Letuma et al., 2023). Despite their ability to install software, surf the internet for information, and use web tools to receive online information, school leaders needed help to create spreadsheets (Letuma et al., 2023).

Despite being prominent economies in Africa, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria and South Africa are different in terms of their economic and technological landscapes. An analysis of the 4.0 leadership development of Nigeria and South Africa offers a comprehensive picture of how different factors—economic, educational, policy-related, private sector-driven, and cultural—impact the development of basic school leaders capable of navigating the complexities of Industry 4.0 in these countries (World-Economic-Forum, 2022; UNESCO, 2024a,b). Therefore, comparative analysis can help identify best practices, challenges, and opportunities pertinent to each context. Furthermore, it contributes to more effective leadership development strategies tailored to their specific needs and circumstances.

This article compares two nations to provide readers with valuable insights, analysis, and a deeper understanding of the leadership development needs of basic school leaders in the 4.0 era. A comparative research approach of survey design was used in the study to establish differences and similarities in the 4.0 leadership development needs of basic school leaders of Nigeria and South Africa (Adiyia and Ashton, 2017). Comparative research was adopted to identify similarities and differences between Nigerian and South African school leaders in terms of their leadership development needs. Furthermore, policymakers can gain valuable insights by comparing policies, interventions, or practices across regions (Klein, 1991; Block, 1997; Afdal, 2019). In addition, it can help identify what works best for different situations.

In the study, Nigeria and South Africa were compared for 4IR leadership skills to identify patterns and trends and enhance cross-cultural understanding (Block, 1997; Azarian, 2011; Afdal, 2019). Inherently, this approach is limited by the cases chosen for comparison. Consequently, the findings may not apply to other cases not included in the study, limiting their generalizability (Azarian, 2011). Moreover, if cases are not chosen systematically or are not representative of the population under study, selection bias can result. As a result, conclusions can be inaccurate, and findings can be undermined (Block, 1997; Adiyia and Ashton, 2017; Afdal, 2019).

Table 1 showed that most (54.2%) participants were female. In comparison, 55.7% of them were selected from secondary schools’ However, 58.0% of participants from South Africa were selected from primary schools, while 80.8% of Nigerian participants were selected from secondary schools. Heads of Department (HOD) constituted the most significant percentage (57.6%) of the participants concerning rank in their various schools; 39.2% of the total sample were bachelor degree holders, out of which 57.4% of participants selected from South Africa were honors degree holders, 47.8% of the Nigerian participants were bachelor degree holders. In comparison, only 1.0% were PhD holders. Regarding age distribution, participants of the age range of 41–50 years and 31–40 years were 32.1 and 29.8%, respectively, of the total sample; the lowest percentage of 15.1% was found among participants in the age range 25–30 years, while more than 75% of the total participant had at least 6 years and above of working experience.

As shown in Table 2, the weighted mean score of 2.2 is indicated for the Nigeria sample and 2.6 for the South African sample. This implies that while the school leaders from Nigeria possessed knowledge of the 4.0 to some extent, their South African counterparts possessed this knowledge to a large extent. However, concerning individual technology knowledge, the school leaders from Nigeria possessed knowledge about the Internet of Things (2.6 ± 0.9) and Information and communication technology (2.6 ± 0.9) to a large extent. In contrast, their South African counterparts possessed knowledge about the Internet of Things (2.8 ± 1.0), Information and communication technology (2.8 ± 1.0), and Smartboard (2.8 ± 1.0) to a large extent.

In Table 3, given the technology applications proficiency weighted mean scores of 3.4 for the Nigeria sample and 4.1 for the South Africa sample, it is implied that the school leaders from Nigeria were at an intermediate level while the counterparts from South Africa were at an advanced level. Specifically, the school leaders sampled from Nigeria were at an advanced level of proficiency in performing some technology applications such as sending an email and surfing the internet to gather information, whereas, in terms of attaching a printer to a computer, creating a spreadsheet, editing a photo, downloading and installing software/apps, and using web tools to receive online information they were at intermediate level. As regards the school leaders sample from South Africa, they were at the intermediate level only in creating a spreadsheet. In contrast, they were at an advanced level in all other technology application tasks assessed in the study.

Results in Table 4 showed that the school leaders selected from Nigeria expressed a preference for agility (M = 3.5, SD = 0.9), creativity (M = 3.3, SD = 1.0), and critical thinking and problem-solving (M = 3.2, SD = 0.9) as the leadership skills needed to lead in the 4.0 era while their South Africa counterparts expressed preference for critical thinking and problem solving (M = 3.3, SD = 0.9), communication expressiveness and collaboration creativity (M = 3.1, SD = 0.9), creativity (M = 3.1, SD = 1.0), information management and evaluation (M = 3.1, SD = 1.0), and agility (M = 3.1, SD = 1.0) as the leadership skills needed to lead in the 4.0 era.

The result in Table 1 indicates that Nigerian school leaders have some knowledge of the 4.0. However, their South African counterparts demonstrated considerable knowledge of the 4.0. The difference expressed by the school leaders could be related to factors such as government policy, the impact of global pandemics, national technological advancement and development, and cultural diversity. Consequently, school leaders should be informed of emerging digital opportunities (Apsorn et al., 2019). In this study, the findings confirm Bayode et al.’s (2019) contention that 4.0 skills are a significant challenge to South Africa’s adoption of 4.0 in education. Nigerian school leaders also indicated that they needed more training in using these technological skills to perform their supervisory roles this corroborated the finding by Awodiji A. O. et al. (2022) that require additional training in using these e-facilities to perform adequate administration. Thus, school leaders’ 4.0 knowledge should be improved upon via leadership development programs.

In contrast, Naidoo and Potokri (2021) found that South African schools must provide adequate leadership development support, preventing leaders from becoming 4.0-ready. Also, Moloi and Mhlanga’s (2021) study revealed that in South Africa, only a minority of school leaders were aware of 4.0 and its implications. The difference between the current study and previous studies from South Africa might be informed by the time factor and orientation caused by the reality of the COVID-19 pandemic. To lead a sustainable school in this changing era, school leaders must embrace 4.0 knowledge through professional development regardless of the country type.

Among the school leaders surveyed in Nigeria and South Africa, Table 3 indicated that their level of proficiency is similar at an advanced level in sending emails and surfing the internet to gather and send information while intermediate in using spreadsheets. In contrast, the Nigeria sampled school leaders had intermediate skills in setting up a printer, editing a photograph, downloading software and apps, and accessing online information using web tools. At the same time, their South African counterparts are advanced in using these technology applications. Thus, it implies that school leaders from Nigeria must be trained to adopt these technology applications in carrying out their administrative tasks. Considering the role of school leaders in the integration of technologies into education, Komarova et al. (2019) and Atasoy (2022) advocated that training and support should be made available to school leaders to continuously adapt to the ever-evolving digital landscape to prepare students for success in the 21st Century. To prepare school leaders for the 4.0, Letuma et al. (2023) stressed the need to upgrade their technological proficiencies. However, Table 5 indicated that significant differences exist between Nigeria and South Africa in the use of technology applications considered in the study, which favors South African basic school leaders.

Meanwhile, basic school leaders from the two nations have similar proficiency in creating spreadsheets. The findings supported the result in Table 3. Thus, Nigerian basic school leaders require training on adopting these technology tools to be at par with their counterparts from South Africa to lead successful schools in 4.0 education. The finding corroborates the result by Johnson and Bartleson (2001) that school leaders are not excellently proficient in the use of spreadsheet to carryout basic administrative tasks such as accounting, record keeping, and budgeting. In another study, a minority of school leaders indicated they were proficient in the database (6.7%) and spreadsheet (10%) software (Afshari et al., 2009). Thus, school leaders require training in the usage of excel sheets in a data-driven world.

Table 4 shows that school leaders selected from Nigeria indicated leadership development needs in agility, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving training to lead in the 4.0 education. In contrast, their South African basic school leaders preferred training on critical thinking and problem-solving, communication expressiveness and collaboration, creativity, information management and evaluation, and agility as the leadership skills needed to lead in the 4.0 era. Table 6 revealed that basic school leaders in Nigeria and South Africa expressed significant differences regarding the skills needed to lead 4.0 schools, including agility, information management, evaluation, and creativity. However, communication and collaboration skills, as well as critical thinking and problem-solving skills, were similar. Nigerian school leaders emphasize agility and creativity training needs more than their South African counterparts. Therefore, studies school improvement is significantly correlated with school leaders’ soft skills (leadership ability, collaboration/teamwork, communication skills, initiative, Problem-solving skills, Critical skills, flexibility/adaptability, empathy, and emotional intelligence skills among others; Keow Ngang et al., 2015; Selwyn et al., 2015; Makri and Vlachopoulos, 2019; Letuma et al., 2023).

In contrast, school leaders from South Africa expressed higher and more significant training needs for information management and evaluation as skills needed to lead in education 4.0. However, the need for training in communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills is the same between Nigerian and South African school leaders. The finding corroborated existing studies on leadership skills required to lead in Education 4.0 as adaptability, innovation and creativity, collaboration and networking, data-driven decision-making, resilience, ethical leadership, communication skills, emotional intelligence, agility, and risk management (World Economic Forum, 2017; Alade et al., 2021; Hai and Van, 2021; Naidoo and Potokri, 2021; Tetteh, 2022; Letuma et al., 2023).

This study compared the school leadership development (SLD) needs of Nigerian and South African school leaders for 4.0. An independent-sample t-test was conducted to compare the SLD needs of Nigerian and South African school leaders to lead. Compared to Nigerian school leaders, South African school leaders have significantly more 4.0 knowledge. School leaders needed help with using spreadsheets despite their proficiency with other technological applications. School leaders demonstrated moderate 4.0 leadership skills. 4.0 leadership skills (agility, creativity, and information management and evaluation) are varied by country type.

The assessment of school leaders’ development needs helps identify areas for improvement and targets training programs accordingly. Individualized professional development programs are designed based on specific development needs. Furthermore, assessments facilitate collaboration and peer learning among school leaders by identifying common development needs. Through collaborative approach, best practices are shared, and a supportive professional community is fostered. As the educational landscape evolves, school leaders face new challenges. In order to address emerging challenges effectively, leaders must assess their development needs in order to remain agile and adaptable.

It is therefore implied that, in organizing SLD programs for basic school leaders in Sub-Saharan Africa, the organizers or policymakers must consider basic school leaders’ knowledge of 4.0 in leading sustainable development in the post-digital era. To achieve education 4.0, basic school leaders must acquire updated skills through SLD programs. According to the study, basic school leaders need capacity building to enhance their capacity to use IT applications, technology, and cutting-edge 4.0 technologies. They also emphasize spreadsheets skills needed to keep records in the data-driven world.

The South African Department of Basic Education and Nigerian Ministry of Education must organize extensive training for basic school leaders to increase their understanding of the education 4.0 attributes. In response to the findings, educational agencies and private donors should provide SLD programs so that basic school leaders can learn different 4.0 skills and knowledge in collaboration with other school leaders. The Nigerian government can copy the South African government in implementing Education 4.0 to drive education in a changing world.

To prepare school leaders for the demands and requirements of 4.0, private individuals and policymakers must understand the significance of equipping basic school leaders with 4.0 competencies and allocate resources accordingly. Based on the study’s findings, it is recommended that the Ministry of Education consider the gaps that need to be filled to empower their basic school leaders with the competencies required for Education 4.0.

Theory-wise, the study addresses African schools’ 4.0 leadership needs. It is also essential for each nation to realize the specific 4.0 leadership skills its school leaders will need to lead education into the future. To gain insight into the leadership development needs of basic school leaders in the era of 4.0 in South Africa and Nigeria, the HCDT and SDNT theories are applied. A key aspect of school leadership development is identifying the skills and knowledge gaps that need to be addressed as the educational system adapts to a disruptive era. School leaders should be prepared to lead successful schools in the changing world by identifying 4.0 skills development, according to HCDT.

The study had limitations. A total of two cities, one from Nigeria and one from South Africa, were included in the sample. As a result, the findings cannot be generalized across the two nations. Methodologically, the study is limited to surveys which may not provide in-depth understanding of school leadership development needs. Thus, a qualitative approach could be adopted to have in-depth understanding of what school leaders’ professional development needs to lead effectively in 4IR in the future studies. The adoption of cluster sampling also poses limitations to this study. Because sampling bias compromises external validity, namely population validity, findings are not generalizable. The results could have been affected by the proportion of Nigerian and South African school leaders who answered the questionnaire. Some 4.0 leadership skills like empathy, emotional intelligence, adaptability, social intelligence, flexibility, ethics, and AI skills should have been studied. School leaders’ 4.0 leadership was not linked to the effectiveness of their schools in this study. As a result, further research can be conducted to determine whether school effectiveness is affected by 4.0 leadership competence. This study can be replicated in other regions of Africa to have comprehensive leadership development needs of the basic school leaders in the continent of Africa since this current study was limited to Southern and Western Africa countries.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent from the patients/participants or patients/participants legal guardian/next of kin was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

OA: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SN: Conceptualization, Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.