Culture refers to a collective system of values, beliefs, practices, and norms that are passed down from one generation to the next within a particular group or society. These shared elements have a profound impact on individuals’ thoughts, behaviors, and social interactions (Janicijevic et al., 2018), and play a crucial role in shaping a child’s development (Rogoff, 2003). With increasing globalization, many countries have experienced a transition towards more diverse societies, characterized by the coexistence of multiple cultures (Andersone and Helmane, 2018; Torres and Tarozzi, 2019). It is important to recognize its significance in all aspects of education from birth onwards.

In the UK, minority ethnic groups make up a significant portion of the education system, accounting for 34.5% of students in general education schools and 31% in special education schools. Moreover, 19.5% of students enrolled in school systems do not speak English as their first language (Explore Education Statistics, 2023). These groups comprise diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, each with unique needs. Failure to address these needs can put them at a disadvantage [Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF), 2009]. It is crucial to design education systems that address the needs of these diverse communities, ensuring equitable access to the same educational opportunities as other groups, which refers to the majority ethnic group(s) and students who speak English as their first language. For this reason, not only the language of instruction but also cultural values, beliefs, and expectations should be taken into account while trying to create an equitable learning environment for all. Importantly, the presence of diverse ethnic backgrounds contributes unique and invaluable perspectives that can be shared and integrated into the classroom environment.

In addition to being from a minority group, having a disability creates a different experience for these children (Khanlou et al., 2014). The progression of this experience and the meaning it represents must be understood in order for these children to access the necessary education to which they are legally entitled. The intersectionality of both being a child from a minority group and having a disability gives rise to a multifaceted experience that necessitates a comprehensive understanding. By acknowledging and addressing the unique challenges faced by these children, fostering inclusive environments, and providing tailored support, society can work towards creating an educational system that empowers all children, regardless of their background or abilities.

Many cultural factors affect the perception and experience of disability and how an individual with a disability exists in society based on their cultures, including elements such as religious beliefs, value judgements, and traditions (Rogers-Adkinson et al., 2003). For a more inclusive society to be possible, it is considered necessary to understand the concept of disability in different cultures and to reveal how that concept is experienced in a culturally and linguistically diverse context (Ravindran and Myers, 2012).

Although efforts have been made since the 2000s to be more inclusive of the experiences of minority ethnic groups in disability studies, the literature still reflects a medical approach or focuses on the experiences of parents (Berghs and Dyson, 2022). Due to the problematization of disability with this medical approach, there is still a need to reposition disability with theoretical insights and illustrate the links with other social factors, including culture (Liasidou, 2012). Within the field of disability studies in education, there is a noticeable research gap regarding the insufficient recognition and incorporation of intersectionality as a vital aspect of its investigations (Walton, 2023).

The aim of this paper is to provide a review of the research that describes the views and experiences of parents in the UK who are at the intersection of being from minority backgrounds and having a child with a disability regarding the concept and identification of disability, as well as their experiences and challenges while accessing services.

The concept of intersectionality was introduced by the legal scholar and critical race theorist Kimberlé Crenshaw. It refers to the complex and interconnected systems of oppression faced by African-American women. Intersectionality highlights how social categories such as race and gender intersect at a micro level to shape their individual experiences and how these categories overlap to create multiple layers of discrimination and privilege (Crenshaw, 1991). She argued that although racism and sexism often intersect in people’s lived experiences, feminist and antiracist practices have historically treated them as separate issues, resulting in a gap.

Intersectionality, therefore, offers a framework for recognizing and tackling the specific obstacles encountered by people who belong to multiple marginalized groups (Randall and Curran, 2023). The notion of intersectionality has been influential traction in various fields, including education, and serves as an analytical approach for exploring the complexities of identity and power dynamics (Cole, 2009; Ferree, 2018; Byerly et al., 2023; Wright, 2023). While providing a comprehensive way of thinking (Thomas, 2020; Woods and Brink, 2021), it offers a deeper understanding of the ways in which structural discrimination operates in society (Waitoller and Artiles, 2013).

This article focuses on the intersection of cultural and linguistic diversity and disability, specifically within the context of being a parent of a child with a disability while also belonging to a minority ethnic group in Western society in the UK. The researchers adopted an intersectional approach to investigate how parents from ethnic minority backgrounds navigate the intersection of marginalization and oppression stemming from both their ethnic identity and their child’s disability status. By attending to the interplay of multiple systems of power and inequality, the study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges faced by parents from marginalized backgrounds in caring for a child with a disability.

Culture is the system of values used by a society in the process of organizing individual and social lives and interpretations of existence (Ergur, 2017). Different cultures shape the interpretation that individuals give to the things that surround them (Earley, 2006) and serve as a source of identification for their members (Stahl et al., 2010). Hall (1990, as cited in Yang et al., 2021) introduced the term “cultural identity” as a means to comprehend how individuals and groups position themselves within the wider cultural landscape. They defined it as a dynamic concept embodied by a multitude of factors, including history, migration, colonization, globalization, and social interactions. These factors not only shape cultural identities but also motivate the creation of multiple ethnic and/or religious cultures that transcend national boundaries (Stahl et al., 2010; Portera, 2020). This social structure requires the application of an egalitarian approach in which every culture can progress in interaction and the development of universal approaches in various fields, including education (Lopez et al., 2000; Khanlou et al., 2014). Culture directly influences the educational expectations, values, parenting practices (Chen et al., 2002; Cheremshynski et al., 2013) and decision-making processes (Bayat, 2007; Neely-Barnes and Dia, 2008; Dinora and Bogenschutz, 2018) within families.

Within the context of disability, cultural factors play a crucial role in shaping the family’s response to disabilities, such as autism. For example, a study conducted by Habayeb et al. (2020) found that Arab-American families tend to conceal the diagnosis of autism from their extended family members and grandparents, in particular, have difficulties in understanding the child’s need for support. In contrast, in another study conducted by Sicherman et al. (2018) with a population of 60% white and 22% Hispanic participants, it is noted that grandparents notice the symptoms in the child earlier, enabling earlier diagnosis.

Therefore, considering the components of culture in the life history of a child with a disability can significantly enhance the understanding and facilitation of appropriate services. By taking culture into account, service providers can gain valuable insights into the child’s background and parents’ beliefs, values, and traditions, which can influence their perceptions of disability and their expectations for support.

While these components may be relatively easy to take into account and understand in the culture where parents have grown up, culture can be a form of exclusion in services received in another country due to immigration (Gencer, 2017). The existing constructions are based on Wester-centric approaches to pedagogy, and the expectation of an “ideal child/student” was created within this cultural notion, resulting in the domination and oppression of the “non-ideal” ones, leading to additional needs. Recognizing the presence of more than one form of exclusion in a child’s life multiplies these needs (Liasidou, 2012).

Many studies have shown that families from minority backgrounds who have a child with a disability face both linguistic and cultural difficulties in accessing official services and experience challenges when interacting with specialists (Fellin et al., 2013; Lindsay et al., 2014; Hanson and Espinosa, 2016). They are unable to receive services due to limited accessibility (i.e., they cannot receive normal public services because of linguistic, cultural, or disability obstacles) (Harris and Bamford, 2001).

Nevertheless, delays in language skills in the early years can be perceived as expected if the child is learning English as a second language, which may result in late recognition of the disability (Ennis-Cole et al., 2013). A study conducted by Mandell et al. (2009) showed notable racial and ethnic disparities in the identification of autism among eight-year-old children. The research indicated that children of African-American, Hispanic, Asian, and diverse ethnic backgrounds exhibited a lower likelihood in contrast to Anglo-American children in terms of having an officially documented autism diagnosis.

On the other hand, when traditional methods are used in the teaching process, unnecessary referrals to special education due to the cultural and linguistic diversity of the student may lead to misplacement [Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF), 2009; Ortiz et al., 2011; Hoover et al., 2016]. This is one of the major causes of confusion with children are accessing early intervention services. Therefore, it becomes imperative for all involved stakeholders to be mindful of their social and cultural approaches and beliefs (King et al., 2013).

According to a report published by the UK Department of Health (2001), despite statutory principles forbidding racism of any kind [Race Relations (Amendment) Act, 2000], the group characterized by cultural and linguistic diversity experiences challenges in accessing services and their families’ needs are not adequately met. On a similar note, the Building Great Britain Report (2005) and the House of Commons Health and Social Care Committee (2019) have mentioned similar access issues for culturally and linguistically diverse children and their parents and stressed the need for universal approaches. Another important point in the Building Great Britain Report (2005) is that parents have limited opportunities to express themselves and raise their concerns.

On the other hand, the Equality Act (2010) strictly prohibits any kind of unfair treatment towards people with disabilities and those who care for them. This includes both direct and indirect forms of discrimination, which are defined as “the effect of disadvantaging persons with a disability.” Similarly, in educational settings, the Department of Education and Department of Health (2015) makes it clear that no action leading to the exclusion of a child with a disability is allowed. Parents and the children themselves have the right to file complaints if they face any discrimination or attempts to exclude them. However, despite these protective regulations, several forms of exclusionary practices, including systemic forms such as off-rolling (Done et al., 2021) and societal forms such as a lack of an accessible environment and relationships (Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2010), still persist and continue to influence the lives of both children and their parents.

This literature review examined published primary research with the aim of exploring the experiences of parents in the UK who come from minority backgrounds and have a child with a disability. The studies included in this review met the following criteria: they (a) focused on parents who come from minority backgrounds and have a child with a disability, (b) were conducted in the UK, (c) were published in English, (c) were peer-reviewed and (d) were published between 2000–2023. Studies focusing on the experiences of refugee and asylum-seeker parents were excluded.

Search terms used included variations and combinations of the following keywords: Parents, children with disabilities, experiences, cultural and linguistic diversity, minority background, intersectionality, United Kingdom. These searches were applied to various databases via the Anglia Ruskin University Library’s “all library collections” service, which included Medline, PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, ERIC, Web of Science, JSTOR, and Scopus. Additionally, internet searches were performed using Google Scholar. Other relevant publications were sought through the references from related publications.

Using the criteria mentioned above and search methods, a total of 27 studies were identified that met the review criteria. Descriptive information about the articles, including details about the article features, minority group studied, the aim of the research, participants, data collection techniques, methods, and results, were presented in Table 1, and these findings have been interpreted accordingly.

To gain insight into the unique experiences at the intersection of cultural and linguistic diversity and disability, several studies have investigated the experiences of ethnic minority parents who have a child with a disability. These studies have illuminated the challenges faced by these groups and have highlighted the shortcomings of current services in addressing their needs. Table 1 provides a descriptive overview of these studies, including details such as the aim of the study, participants, methods, data collection techniques, and the findings of each study.

In conclusion, this paper has tried to explore the intersectionality of cultural and linguistic diversity and disability, revealing a unique set of challenges faced by parents from a minority ethnic background who have a child with a disability. By examining the experiences of parents, this research highlights the pressing need to address cultural and linguistic factors in service provision. The findings consistently highlight a lack of knowledge about the specific nature of the needs of children with disabilities and their parents, resulting in communication challenges between families and experts. Moreover, cultural barriers hinder effective communication during the referral and diagnostic process. Immigrant families often face economic hardships, compounded by limited support from extended family networks influenced by cultural structures. It is essential to recognize and address these barriers comprehensively. Improving communication channels and providing comprehensive support can help bridge the gap between families and experts, ensuring that children with disabilities receive the specific and appropriate care they need. Additionally, psychological assistance should be made available to these families to help them cope with the unique challenges they face. Upon consideration of the unique insights provided by each study, common themes and issues emerge, underscoring the significance of cultural and linguistic factors, comprehensive support, and improved communication channels for serving families and children with disabilities.

Moving forward, it is recommended that researchers prioritize conducting systematic literature reviews and review background articles. This approach provides a comprehensive understanding of the topic, identifies knowledge gaps, and establishes a solid foundation for future research. Additionally, in order to address the challenges faced by minority ethnic groups with disabled children, researchers should focus on action research and intervention studies. By implementing and evaluating interventions, evidence-based solutions can be developed to support these families effectively. The findings of the articles reviewed in this paper have important policy implications, emphasizing the need for advocacy efforts to inform policymakers about the specific needs and experiences of minority groups with children with disabilities. This can lead to the development of inclusive policies and the allocation of resources to better support these families. Furthermore, while this paper contributes to the recognition of intersectionality in disability studies, it is focused on the experiences of parents who have a child with a disability and come from a minority ethnic background. Further studies may expand the literature on the lived experiences of minority ethnic people and children with disabilities. Lastly, future research should strive to include a more diverse range of ethnic backgrounds within minority groups to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the experiences and challenges faced by all minority groups with children with disabilities.

GK contributed to the conception of the study, reviewed the literature, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. PC contributed to writing the discussion of the literature and improving the manuscript. All authors contributed to the manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.