Description of motion events varies in different sentences across languages. This was the first building block of Talmy’s (1985) typology. According to Talmy (2000), every motion event includes Figure, Ground, Path, and Motion. He proposed that the main verb of a motion event always lexicalizes the motion component, and every motion event consists of several components, such as Figure, Ground, Path, and Motion. Depicting a daily chore: you wake up (the movement “up”), get out of the bed (the movement “out”, from a Source “the bed”), put on your clothes (the movement “on”), get in your car and drive fast to work (the movement “in” the Manner “fast” the Goal “to work”), crash into a tree (the Manner “crash” the place “into” the Goal “tree”), and your whole day goes wrong (the Manner “wrong”). As explained in the depiction above, it is unimaginable to live without motions and consequently impossible to have a language without motion events (Slobin and Hoiting, 1994; Slobin, 1996). This suggests that motion events are an inextricable part of human life which indicate that every second of our life, hence language use, is accompanied by motion events.

Japanese, Turkish, Romance, Basque, and Semitic language classes are verb-framed languages. On the opposite pole, Germanic, Finno-Urgic, and Slavic language classes are classified as satellite-framed (Slobin, 2005). The Path, in a verb-framed language, is typically encoded in the main verb (e.g., exit and enter). However, an affix or a verb particle accompanies the motion verb to signify the Path in a satellite-framed language (Özcalıskan, 2004). Different lexicalizations of Path information in each category of languages lead to different conflation patterns. Indeed, every language has its way of “distributing features of the same spatial information into linguistic units” (Allen, 2007, p. 17).

The universal approach to conceptual structures proposes that linguistic variations (but not conceptual variations) are reflected through cross-linguistic variations in syntactic constructions and verbal categories. Several scholars investigated this (e.g., Greenberg, 1966; Comrie, 1981; Jackendoff, 1986, 1990). From a different view, several scholars argued that conceptual representations were not universal (e.g., Brown and Lenneberg, 1954; Whorf, 1956; Lucy, 1993; Slobin, 1998). Nevertheless, language-specific categories are argued as the conceptualizations of a speaker’s experience (Levinson, 1994; Lucy, 1996; Slobin, 1996). Two versions of strong and weak views demonstrate this language and conceptualization relation. Based on this strong view, linguistic patterns affect people’s conceptualizations of individuals while learning a language (e.g., see Lenneberg, 1953; Whorf, 1956; Pinker, 1994; Deutscher, 2010). This view suggests that the schemata employed for the representation of the environment were shaped after the conceptualization of the experience (for detailed discussion, refer to Pinker, 1994). As a result, non-linguistic cognitive processes were highly linked to the content and form of the spoken language. On the other hand, the weak version suggests that the thought effects of linguistic patterns take place under particular circumstances (e.g., Lucy, 2016). As an example, linguistic patterns influenced by thought may occur under certain circumstances. Some of this research has asked whether these variations in semantic patterns lead to differences in non-linguistic cognition. The results obtained in these studies have not been very consistent. Some researchers have found evidence for Whorfian effects or linguistic relativity (Billman and Krych, 1998; Oh, 2003).

Slobin (1996) claimed that language might influence the conceptualization of experience only when this experience is linguistically mediated. Some scholars (e.g., Lenneberg and Roberts, 1956; Lantz and Stefflre, 1964) proposed that linguistic patterns are assets to codify and recover the information held in memory. In this respect, Hermer-Vazquez et al. (1999) asserted that linguistic patterns are the means to integrate information that cannot be integrated into other representational systems. Another language-based version is called language-as-strategy. This approach argues that speakers should be affected by linguistic attributes when performing particular tasks where language would reasonably act as a performance mediator (Slobin and Hoiting, 1994). They also suggested that language users rely on their linguistic classification to retrieve information regarding complicated judgments. We investigated how the lexicalization patterns of authors affect the development of teaching materials for English language learners.

This research was done in two sections. Initially, we aimed to investigate whether motion-related lexical patterning varies in English textbooks taught in Iran, Turkey, and Australia. Secondly, we investigated the effects of patterns of encoding motion events in the native languages of these three countries (Turkish, Persian, and Australian English) on the material development of textbooks. The components of motion events in native languages and the EFL textbooks taught in these three contexts were compared using a contrastive content analysis approach. Using the qualitative classification of sentences in the textbooks and novels, the researchers categorized the motion verbs according to their patterns. The sentences that contained motion verbs were disassembled into all possible parts and the components of the motion event structures were analyzed. The qualitative data were counted numerically so that the data could also be compared from a quantitative approach.

In the first stage, all the sentences that included a motion-related pattern across the selected textbooks at high schools in Iran, Turkey, and Australia were excavated from the texts. These analyses were based on Talmy’s (1985) model. We used a framework that included all possible motion components in a motion event, including Figure, Manner, Path, Cause, Ground, Source, and Goal. Each component was calculated numerically; however, only Figure and Path were discussed in the current study.

Secondly, to discover the effects of target languages on the development of the EFL textbooks in Iran and Turkey, it was crucial to provide rich corpora in these two contexts (the Australian context was also under analysis, yet not as an EFL context). Hence, the effects of encoding motion events on the material development of textbooks and the extent to which the encoding of motion verbs in the target language affected the material development of textbooks in Persian, Turkish, and Australian languages were investigated qualitatively. Hence, a corpus of sentences from novels in native languages was collected, and their motion-related lexical patterning was investigated. Seven main motion components of Figure, Manner, Path, Cause, Ground, Source, and Goal were analyzed in the sentences and calculated numerically.

Most of the sentences in the EFL textbook taught in Iran described a single motion event even though some included no motion event. Besides, some cases included more than one motion event.

Figure 1 illustrates that the number of motion components and the percentages are close in both texts. Some distinctive differences are between the percentages of Figure (14%) in these two sets of data. This can be due to the nature of these novels, as in almost all sentences Figure seems to be a ubiquitous component of sentences. Yet, as the sentences get longer in the novels according to the novel’s genre and the author’s writing style, fewer Figures might be used in comparison to educational textbooks.

Turkey was the second context in which the provided corpora were analyzed. Sentences were collected from the EFL textbook Yes you can B2.2 taught at Turkish high schools, and a list of motion-event sentences was used for the analysis.

As Figure 2 illustrates, the number of motion components and the percentages are not very close in both texts, which is in contrast with the results obtained from the context in Iran. Some distinctive percentages existed between the percentages of Figure (10%) in these two data sets, where the number of Figure components used in the English textbook taught in Turkey is fewer than in the Turkish novel. More statistically significant is the distinction between the percentages of Path and Manner (10% and 20%, respectively). In other words, fewer Path and more Manner verbs are used in the Turkish novel compared with the percentage of components used in the EFL textbook taught in Turkey. Such findings reveal that the English textbook taught in Turkey does not follow the Turkish language cognitive system based on Talmy’s categorization. However, previous research argues for the existence of various linguistic and motion patterns that are represented in English and Turkish learners’ thinking styles (Talmy, 1985; Özcalıskan, 2004). As observable, the language has been adjusted for usage outside the Turkish context.

Figure 3 shows the percentages of cases that the seven major components of a motion event (Figure, Manner, Path, Source, Cause, Ground, and Goal) that have been mentioned in the sentences in the context of Australia.

As Figure 3 shows, the percentages of motion components in the context of Australia are significantly close in both corpora, which is in contrast with the results obtained from the context of Iran and Turkey. The similarity of the percentages in all motion-related components is statistically significant. Path and Manner are all used in both texts with approximately the same percentages. Such findings reveal that the English textbook taught in Australia follows the English language cognitive system based on Talmy’s categorization to a great extent. Clearly, the students deal with the same language as the country’s national language. This is confirmed by evidence from the Australian macro-curriculum material development, which permits students and schools to select their optimal English book from various books recommended by the Ministry of Education. Curricular components are crucial in establishing a cogent learning context in EFL classrooms (Zare-Behtash and Banaruee, 2017).

The next section provides detailed explanations for the obtained results in the investigated languages. As indicated in the previous section, sentences in English textbooks taught in Iranian and Turkish high schools are modified versions of English. Every motion event might be affected by an infinite set of factors. In this investigation, Figure and Path were studied. If such factors can be encoded within language systems, the speakers of a language can give a more comprehensive description of motion events.

In this section, all components of motion events have been discussed in detail. This could be so effective as a cross-linguistic comparison. Cross-linguistic comparisons could effectively contribute to investigating the content of EFL textbooks and their appropriateness and efficacy for teaching language to the target EFL learners.

As is represented in Table 1, the percentages of Path in all of the contents in Iran’s context are significantly high and precisely the same. This may suggest that the English book in Iran and the Persian novel have been written in the same styles and structures, or probably the contents have been the same. The latter assumption is already rejected as the novel and the EFL textbook are thoroughly two different materials. What remains? Probably the main reason is that the same thinking styles dominated the writers. Suppose this assumption leads to the truth about EFL textbooks at Iranian high schools, it could be easily inferred that the curriculum and the syllabus are also designed with the same thinking styles. Having the curriculum, syllabus, and materials in the Persian language, cognitive styles may not aid Iranian EFL learners to succeed in enhancing their level of comprehension and conceptual development.

Moreover, the Persian language has been researched to be a verb-framed or, in some studies, an equipollent language. This means that Path is mostly present in the conflation of the motion verb or other linguistic elements apart from satellites. In the following section, some sentences from both the Persian novel and the EFL textbook (English 3) which enjoy the Path component have been mentioned to illustrate the way the Path component has been used in this language.

In the first Persian example, the verb ‘ghamat raast kard’ consists of three words: “raast” (up) expresses the Path, and “kard” is used to change “ghamat raast” into a verb. This is a specific feature that is present in many Persian verbs. This linguistic phenomenon is called light verb construction (LVC). All of the four Persian examples mentioned above include such verbs. In all of these sentences, the conflation of Motion + Path is evident. These examples indicate that Persian is a verb-framed language.

In the first English example, the word “into” acts as the Path component of the sentence, which is the satellite for the verb “goes.” In the second sentence, Path is encoded in the verb “attract.” This encoding happens cognitively at first, as the verb means pull near. The interesting point in such verbs is that there is a combination of an affix [at (ad)] and a root (tract). English is replete with such verbs besides being a satellite-framed language. However, the investigation of motion verbs through word formation and etymology is not the focus of this study. In the last sentence, both the conflation of Motion + Path and the satellite indicating Path are present. The verb “follow” contains Path as it means to come or go after and proceed behind, so the direction of after or behind is encoded in the verb. In addition, the particle “on” directs the attention toward the television in this sentence. English is categorized as V-framed for being made of such phrasal verbs in the construction of motion-event sentences.

Table 1 shows that the percentages of Path in all of the contents in Turkey’s context are significantly high, yet they are not the same in the two contents (Yes you can B2.2 45% and My Name is Red 35%). It could be inferred from this result that the EFL textbook has been designed to fulfill a high percentage of Path components in the motion event sentences. That springs from the reason that learners need to get English styles, and in English (a satellite-framed language), the number of Path components in a motion-related expression is abundant. While in the Turkish novel, My Name is Red, the author was free to move on with his writing style and structures. Assuming that Turkish EFL textbooks have been targeted at utilizing material development, it could be inferred that the curriculum and the syllabus have been designed and developed to push learners toward natural English usage. This is what has been widely recommended in EFL pedagogy. The more the learners are exposed to natural English and the English thinking styles, the sounder cognitive and conceptual representation would occur and lead to higher levels of comprehension.

Moreover, Turkish has been considered a verb-framed language. This means that the Manner of the motion event is mostly present in the conflation of the motion verb. In the following section, some sentences from the Turkish novel and the EFL textbook (Yes you can B2.2) containing the Path component have been mentioned.

In the first Turkish example, Path is conflated with Motion in the verb “girdim.” This is precisely the same as its English equivalent, “enter.” In the second sentence, the verb “ölen” plays the same role in a motion-event structure. However, its English equivalent “passed away” differs in that it includes a satellite “away.” The next example in Turkish also shows a conflation of Motion + Path through the verb “seyahat,” while the English equivalent here is the verb “traveling through,” which contains a satellite “through.” The motion verbs “indim” and “girdim” are also conflated with the Path component, “girdim” is even conflated with the Manner component. This highly reveals that Turkish is a verb-framed language.

English is a satellite-framed language; the Path is mostly presented as a satellite in a motion-event sentence. The results in Table 1 present a great percentage of Path in both contents (English for Australian Curriculum Book 2 57% and Paradise Possessed 58%). This was the expected percentage based on Talmy’s categorization. This suggests that almost 60 percent of motion-event sentences have at least a Path component. It could be inferred from this result that ideal EFL textbooks must enjoy a good usage of motion verbs, specifically with a Path satellite. The more materials are developed in line with cognitive styles in English, the higher cognitive abilities and comprehension will occur among EFL learners. However, there were also sentences where the Path was conflated with the motion verb. In the following section, some sentences from the English novel and the EFL textbook (English for Australian Curriculum Book 2), which contain the Path component, have been mentioned.

In these examples, the Path component is present in two forms: conflation and satellite. The motion verb “delivered” shows the direction of forward as the Path; additionally, it has been accompanied by a satellite “to.” This type of conflation (+satellite) is abundant in English. The verb, per se, can be divided into “de” and “liver,” where “de” could act as a particle back in the history of its word formation. This confirms that English is a satellite-framed language. The abovementioned samples and discussions (regarding Turkey and Iran context) indicate that sentences in EFL textbooks are not what actual English beyond the classroom is in use. The EFL textbooks are the modified version of contents learners need to comprehend English naturally. These textbooks have been simplified at all levels. This will harm learners’ cognitive development and communicative skills. Such textbooks lack detailed information for Path of motion events as standard English texts do.

In the process of conducting this study, the research was restricted to cognitive aspects of lexical patterning and metaphorical descriptions. This study had some limitations which were: only one book from each country was investigated, and only textbooks from three countries were under examination. Based on the findings of this study, some lines of investigation are recommended. As was mentioned, the scope of this study was limited in several ways. This study aimed to investigate the motion-related lexical patterning in textbooks taught in three different countries which are categorized in different classes of languages based on Talmy (1985). These languages were Turkish (verb-framed), Australian English (satellite-framed), and Persian (equipollently-framed). Further research could be aimed at several languages with the same category. As an example, the investigation of Turkish, Arabic, and Spanish which are verb-framed would be a great confirmatory study. Moreover, texts with different genres, styles, and subjects may have different motion components. Hence, the analyses of different texts in one language would provide great information. We suggest that the place of motion events in a sentence and their effect on the comprehension of texts should be analyzed as well. In future research projects, a larger set of books can be examined to find how motion events are encoded and described in textbooks. There is no doubt that studies conducted on larger corpora can produce more reliable results. We suggest that further research should focus on more factors. It will be interesting to follow the motion components in words etymologically. This could also provide information regarding the cognitive and conceptual processes and changes through history.