The main objective of this study is to analyse how the Early Modern Age is taught in secondary school textbooks. To do so, attention is focused on the analysis of the contents of this period of history in textbooks, how it is approached in the textbooks used by teachers in the classroom and its relationship with the historiographical trends.

The specific objectives to ensure the success of this main objective are as follows:

For the analysis of the historical contents of the Early Modern Age in school textbooks, three books, published by Anaya, Oxford and Vicens Vives in 2015, corresponding to the LOMCE Spanish educational law, were selected. The selected books were for use in the second year of compulsory secondary education and 770 activities relating to the contents of the Early Modern Age were analysed with the aim of observing the way in which historical skills were applied (Table 1).

In order to carry out a comparative analysis of the historical contents of the textbooks and the topics developed by researchers of the Early Modern Age, the study by Gómez (2014) on publications in journals and scientific meetings in the field of Early Modern History was taken as a point of reference. The aforementioned study analyses 484 book chapters and 291 articles on this specific period of history (Table 2).

With this study as a starting point, the analysis was broadened to include publications by the FEHM up to the present day (García-Fernández, 2016; Fortea et al., 2018; Pérez-Samper and Beltrán Moya, 2018) and certain journals, such as Studia Histórica (monographs 2016–2022) and IH, Investigaciones Históricas (articles ranging from 2016 to 2020).

The data collection instrument for the activities included in the textbooks was designed in an Excel database and was divided into four categories: historical contents; type of activity/exam question; cognitive level required; presence of first and second-order concepts. Examples of this categorisation can be found in other studies: on textbook activities, see Gómez (2014) and Gómez and Miralles (2016); on examinations, see Gómez and Miralles (2015). The categorisation can be observed in Tables 3–6. On another, more extensive, categorisation of historical contents, see Gómez and Chapman (2017) and Gómez et al. (2019).

In order to define the cognitive level required in the activities contained in the textbooks, the studies by Sáiz (2011, 2013, 2015) have been taken as a point of reference. In this categorisation, Bloom’s Taxonomy of objectives-learning stages has been applied in one of its most recent versions adapted by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001). This has made it possible to classify the learning outcomes of the activities proposed in the textbooks into cognitive levels. Bloom’s Taxonomy demonstrates that it is possible to formulate questions and activities of different levels. However, this categorisation has its limitations due to the fact that human knowledge is not so linear or accumulative (Escamilla, 2011). Therefore, the cognitive categorisation of questions and the comprehension of texts has been added to this taxonomy (Vidal-Abarca, 2010). On the one hand, there are literal questions (of a low cognitive level) which require a simple pattern of information seeking (locating-memorising), while, on the other hand, there are inferential questions (of a high cognitive level), the search pattern of which is more complex (reviewing-relating-integrating; inferring-reasoning).

This ranking can also be applied to the very procedures of the teaching and learning of history (Hernández, 2002): working with thematic historical maps; images of the different types outlined above; graphs, tables or charts; and chronological axes. Two levels can be differentiated in these procedures. First of all, there is a low level, represented by procedures which generate a high degree of automatisation, which are merely techniques as they require the learning and practice of basic rules of a descriptive or mechanical nature. Secondly, certain procedures demand the activation of wide-ranging cognitive resources as they are not merely rules, but rather principles of a more explanatory nature, which imply relating information with other sources, inferring or deducing information contained within a map, graph, chronological axis or image and the elaboration of explanations or hypotheses. Based on these criteria, a conceptual model for the analysis of activities contained in history textbooks has been proposed, consisting of three levels according to their cognitive complexity after Sáiz (2011, 2013, 2015) model, as shown in Table 4.

For the analysis of the presence of first and second-order concepts (the latter relating to historical thinking skills), the proposal set out by Seixas and Morton (2013) has been used as the foundation, whilst also taking into consideration the proposals made by Domínguez (2015). The proposal here has been adapted to the activities of the textbooks, as shown in Table 5. Furthermore, two types of first-order concepts (chronology, conceptual/factual) have also been added, as has been the case in prior studies on examinations (Gómez and Miralles, 2015) and on textbooks (Gómez, 2014).

In relation with the historiographical discourse and from a global perspective, the historical contents of the textbooks are presented from a combination of classical positivism, or the Ranke model (a sequence of data and dates from a chronological point of view), and a structural model inherited from the Annales historiographical school (Gómez and Miralles, 2017). The topics dealt with in the most widely used textbooks in Spain tend to faithfully reproduce the epigraphs of the official education laws (Sáiz, 2010), as can be observed in Table 7.

In the textbooks analysed, the topics relating to the Early Modern Age are presented in chronological order according to the main political stages of this period. The historical contents worked on in the second year of secondary education take in the Early Modern period of the 15th–17th centuries. The 18th century is studied in the third year along with contents relating to the 19th century.

The units dealing with this period correspond to the birth of the Modern State, the Renaissance and Humanism, the geographical discoveries, the authoritarian monarchy of the Catholic Monarchs, the Habsburg Empire and the 17th century or Baroque Period. It is possible to observe the pre-eminence of political history, inherited from positivism, not only in terms of number of pages but also in how the units are organised. Political circumstances are the vehicle for structuring historical narratives. Based on this way of organising the historical contents, the discourse develops other economic, social, cultural and artistic topics according to the structuralist perspective of the Annales school, towards a vision of total history (Miralles et al., 2011).

The results also show how historical contents relating to cultural history and the history of art have gained ground in secondary education textbooks, followed by those relating to political and institutional history. These two areas comprise 67% if the activities on the Early Modern Age in the textbooks analysed (Table 8). Social and economic history occupy a secondary position, with around 23% of the activities. In comparison with previous studies on textbooks (Gómez and Miralles, 2017), the activities relating to social and economic topics are somewhat more representative, although they still do not reach the levels achieved by political history and much less cultural history and the history of art.

In order to know the complexity of the activities classified according to the historical contents in Table 8, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out. The results show that there are significant differences (p = 0.03) between the activities concerning political and institutional history (with a low cognitive level) and those contents relating to matters of economic, social, cultural and art history (Figure 1).

It is often the case that questions on political history, such as What were the main kingdoms of the east of Europe? and Who were the Catholic Monarchs? require skills relating to reading, description, locating, repetition, reproduction and/or memorisation, although some, such as the latter, also require understanding and even consultation of other sources. However, activities such as State the relationship between the English and Flemish textile industries and Castilian transhumant livestock rearing, Why did the Portuguese and the Spanish search for new routes to reach India? and Why did the new humanist philosophy bring about the progress of scientific knowledge? which are connected with economic, social and cultural aspects, require cognitive skills relating to comprehension, relationship, application and critical evaluation. Following a qualitative analysis to observe the most repeated terms and concepts in the activities of the selected 2nd-year textbooks, a word cloud was created (Figure 2). The size of the words represents those which are most repeated in the school textbooks analysed. The most represented concepts are closely related with cultural and artistic aspects (work of art, painting, art, Renaissance, Baroque, humanist, architecture, sculpture, authors, printing press, book, technique, religion, etc.), followed by those relating to political and institutional history (monarchy, reigns, monarchs, Catholic Monarchs, Charles I, Philip II, empire, territories, Europe, Spain, America, countries, institutions, power, Church, war, conflict, etc.) and a lower presence of those relating to economic and social issues (population, social groups, society, age, class, cities, land, life). It is also possible to observe the level of complexity required of the secondary students in the handling of historical knowledge (observe, summarise or state) and the approach proposed for the analysis of the historical knowledge (characteristics, causes, consequences, differences, questions, events, historical fact, name, types, outline, summary).

As far as how the contents of the textbooks are handled in terms of the proposals of recent historiography is concerned, the results demonstrate a lack of updating of the contents taught in the classroom. The topics contained within the textbooks do not encompass many of the current concerns of Spanish historians. For this reason, the study by Gómez (2014) has been taken as a reference point along with more recent publications (between 2015 and 2022) in the FEHM and in other journals such as Studia Histórica and IH. A change from history to social concerns has taken place, with an interest arising in the study of social minorities or marginalised groups (healers, washerwomen, servants), identities and stereotypes relating to gender and age, the proliferation of biographies and trajectories of families and individuals as subjects of historical reflection and moving beyond traditional geographical spaces towards others of a peripheral nature (Hernández, 2018). The main issues concerning historiography are: taxation issues (Sánchez-Durán, 2019); oligarchies and local elites (Chacón-Jiménez and Hernández-Franco, 2019); the organisation of territory; vertical and horizontal networks and relations of power between different political, religious and economic institutions (Pullido-Serrano, 2018); families and patrimony (Salas-Almeda, 2016; Carrasco-González, 2018); everyday life (Franco-Rubio, 2018); the image of power, ceremonies and festivities (Moreno-Díaz del Campo, 2020; García-Cárcel and Serrano, 2021); social inequalities, assistance and marginality (Rivasplata-Varillas, 2018; González-López, 2020; García-González, 2021); and social conflict (Torres-Arce, 2018; Mantecón-Movellán et al., 2020). These topics are far-removed from the linear, political and traditional discourse which persists in textbooks (Gómez and Miralles, 2017).

Influenced by different historiographical trends, current research on the Early Modern Age has shown changes in how political topics are approached, focusing on: local elites and the reproduction and consolidation of power (Chacón-Jiménez and Hernández-Franco, 2019); relationships of dependence; war and soldiers with elements relating to everyday life and social advancement (Herrero Fernández-Quesada, 2020); the reassessment of the study of specific kings and queens; and the image of power from a new model of political history influenced by post-modernist trends (Pérez-Samper, 2020). However, in the selected textbooks, the activities approach the contents based on the conceptualisation of power and its manifestations, the history of the Habsburg Monarchy, the actions carried out by kings and favourites and the dates of specific battles and peace treaties (Which foreign conflicts sustained the first Habsburg monarchs? List the different peace treaties which led to the loss of territories).

Researchers of social and economic history have proposed a change in the historical analysis of social structure focusing more on social relationships. Family and individual strategies and histories have become the object of analysis to provide understanding of the social fabric (García-González, 2021). Social groups such as those in power, traders and the marginalised (prostitutes, Moriscos, tramps and conversos) have been studied from this new perspective (Montanel-Marcuello, 2018; Rivasplata-Varillas, 2018; Moreno-Díaz del Campo, 2020). In comparison with the contents included in the textbook activities, they are materialised in the description of the general characteristics of the population, social stratification and its evolution, the general characteristics of the economy of Spain and Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries (growth and crisis) and some mentions of marginalised groups such as Moriscos and beggars (What factors led to the expulsion of the Moriscos? What ideological principles was the decision based upon?).

Issues relating to everyday life and material life (housing, clothing, food, etc.), the re-evaluation of the role of women and gender relationships (Rey-Castelao, 2021) and studies relating to conflict, disorder and justice on a local level (Álvarez Delgado, 2022) are of particular interest to researchers, who have studied them in great detail. However, they are barely present in the secondary education textbooks analysed (What changes took place in people’s everyday diet in the 16th and 17th centuries? Why was this so? What type of furniture and possessions can you find? Which social group do you think lived in each house?).

As far as the history of culture and art are concerned, a great number of studies focus on image, representation, propaganda, ceremonies, devotions and festivities (León-Vegas, 2015). There are also studies on private libraries, books and the printing industry (Barber Castellà, 2018). However, in the activities analysed in 2nd-year textbooks, these types of historical contents are approached via humanism and the Renaissance, the Reformation, the definition of artistic styles and by listing works of art and authors (What was the Renaissance? By which ancient civilisations was it inspired? What new artistic techniques arose in the Renaissance? In which country did the Renaissance begin? In which two stages can it be divided?).

Lastly, in relation to the topic of America as one of the key aspects of the Early Modern Age, historians focus their attention on the organisation of American territory (Díaz-Ceballos, 2018), marital strategies, family links and local oligarchies, influenced by microhistory (Levi, 2003). There is a recognition of peripheral spaces in the narrative of imperial history. The case studies, comparative history, biography and prosopography relate themes, ideas, objects and individuals with their social context (Burke, 2018). In school textbooks, the activities on this topic focus on the discovery of America and the organisation of the colonised territories (List the present-day countries which were under the control of Castile. Which empire did Hernán Cortés fight against? What was its capital?). No attention is paid to the role of the indigenous allies of Cortés and Pizarro, who are essential in understanding the formation of these complex societies (Díaz-Ceballos, 2018). Furthermore, the negative perspective of Bartolomé de las Casas is neglected and little or nothing is said of miscegenation and its effect on heritage and administration. The shame caused by certain episodes of Spain’s imperial past means that key issues for understanding historical developments are ignored. In comparison with the critical model of history (debate, an initiation in research, etc.) present in textbooks in the United Kingdom, France and Portugal (Gómez and Chapman, 2017; Rodríguez and Solé, 2018), Spanish textbooks tiptoe around controversial and complex issues of the country’s Black Legend related with America, the Inquisition and Philip II (Gómez and Rodríguez, 2020).

According to the data obtained, short questions are the most common type of activities contained in the textbooks analysed, constituting almost 50% of the activities observed (Table 9). A long way behind can be found questions relating to figures and images, which represent a little more than 17% of the activities. The remaining categories (searching for information, text commentary, creation, essay and objective test) represent less than 9% each. There is a lack of questions which lead secondary students to think for themselves regarding social events or to build their historical knowledge in a significant way. Such activities are marginal and are generally those which are worked on least in the classroom (Sáiz, 2010).

A differential analysis was carried out of the variables types of activity and level of cognitive complexity (Figure 3). As can be seen in the results of the ANOVA test (Table 10) and in the post-hoc Tukey-B test (Table 11), the differences are significant, with short questions being those which require the lowest cognitive level. In general, the short questions analysed in the textbooks require an extremely low cognitive level and can be answered with a term, concepts, dates or just a few words.

The educational potential of activities with figures and images, which, in theory, could be related with the second-order concepts of sources and historical evidence, is not adequately exploited in the selected textbooks. Students are asked to observe, summarise, state, identify or briefly explain specific information, concepts or historical events in an extremely guided way, which is, therefore, not well-connected with the historical thinking skills (Seixas and Morton, 2013).

As far as the analysis of first and second-order concepts is concerned, the results (Table 12) show an improvement with regard to prior analyses (Gómez, 2014) as there is a greater presence of second-order concepts.

In spite of this, there is still a great presence of first-order concepts, particularly those of a factual/conceptual nature (more than 50%). Furthermore, these types of activities require a low cognitive level as shown by the results obtained in the ANOVA test (Table 13) and the Tukey test (Table 14) represented in Figure 4.

The conceptual/factual or chronological activities of the textbooks are, on the whole, answered by merely reproducing the historical discourse offered by the book itself (What route did Columbus take on his first voyage? Where did he leave from? Which Caribbean islands did he visit? In which area of the Americas did he disembark?). It is striking that the textbooks contain almost no questions relating to chronological skills, handling dates, the use and creation of chronological axes or timelines (just over 3%). The insistence of the use of short question exercises leads students towards an acritical and atemporal conception of history as has been proven in studies on primary teacher training (Sáiz and Gómez, 2016) and of examinations in secondary education (Gómez and Miralles, 2015).

The concepts of historical thinking are less present, with activities relating to sources and evidence (almost 20%) and historical relevance (almost 12%) standing out. The other categories (historical perspective, causes and consequences, change/continuity and ethical dimension) are not well represented in the textbooks analysed. Such activities, relating to second-order concepts, require a higher cognitive level, as shown in Figure 4. However, some of the activities connected to second-order concepts such as causes and consequences and change and continuity require a low cognitive level. Activities concerning historical perspective and the ethical dimension are those which require a greater degree of complexity. These types of more complex and creative activities are those which guide students towards forming their own way of thinking and building their own knowledge in a significant way, thus contributing to the historical competences (Gómez and Miralles, 2017).