The competence-based approach to the training of future teachers promotes the implementation of active and experiential methodologies, allowing students to apply their learning in real conditions. In accordance with this view, service-learning (SL) is a teaching methodology that seeks to develop academic competencies while providing a community service to meet social needs (Yorio and Ye, 2012). Moreover, SL has the potential to encourage entrepreneurial and innovative learning experiences (Meaney et al., 2016), promote social justice (Jones and Kiser, 2014), enhance students’ critical thinking (Mitchell, 2008), and foster educational transformations (Meidl and Sulentic, 2018). Thus, SL stands as a firm opportunity to develop the social entrepreneurship competency (SEC) through integral training that provides a melding of theory and practice (Wilkinson et al., 2013). For the purpose of this research, we considered the SEC as the ability to initiate or embrace new projects of social entrepreneurship. As established in previous research, this competency comprises personal, social, and innovative personality features (Capella-Peris et al., 2020a).

Understanding the influence of SL in Physical Education (PE) is currently a topic of great interest (Chiva-Bartoll et al., 2020a, 2021a, 2021b; García-Rico et al., 2021; Pérez-Ordás et al., 2021; Valverde-Esteve et al., 2021). Even new theoretical proposals have been made (Chiva-Bartoll and Fernández-Rio, 2021). For this reason, following a similar approach of previous works, we analyzed the effects of SL in PE (Domangue and Carson, 2008; Wilkinson et al., 2013; Peralta et al., 2015; Ward et al., 2017; Webster et al., 2017; Whitley et al., 2017; Capella-Peris et al., 2020b). Previous research has already focused on the personal, civic, or social effects of this methodology, for example, investigating how a SL program shaped preservice teachers’ cultural competency (Domangue and Carson, 2008), examining the influence of SL upon first-year PETE candidates’ vocational call to teach (Miller, 2012), exploring preservice teachers’ experiences of cognitive disequilibrium theory during a SL project in a study abroad experience (Ward et al., 2017), and conducting narrative inquiry regarding undergraduate students’ experiences in a physical activity-based SL (Whitley et al., 2017). However, there is a lack of emphasis regarding the effects of SL on promoting the SEC of physical education teacher education students (PETEs). The promotion of this competency in teacher education is important not only because it increases social skills and moral values in future teachers, but it also leads society to improve global wealth, counteract social crises, and resolve community problems. Thus, this paper fills this gap in the research field.

Another significant contribution is made in our research design, based on a comparison of two modalities of intervention in the same SL program, since no similar comparisons have been performed in previous studies. The main difference between the two modalities lies in the duration and intensity of the service provided. Despite several prior recommendations (National Youth Leadership Council, 2004), there are no established parameters for SL programs regarding duration (i.e., how long does the intervention last) and intensity (i.e., effective amount of time invested in the intervention). A previous review analyses several studies about implementations of SL programs in physical education (PE) that varied from 5–20 h to 4–12 weeks (Cervantes and Meaney, 2013). However, the comparison of their effects is skewed by many individual differences, which makes it difficult to interpret the duration and intensity variables. Therefore, we try to shed light on this issue by comparing two intervention modalities of the same SL program with different and well-defined duration and intensity parameters.

Specifically, the purposes of this study are to: 1) investigate the effect of a service learning (SL) program on the SEC of PETEs, and 2) compare the difference between the SEC of PETEs exposed at different SL intervention modalities characterized by different levels of SL duration and intensity. Thus, the studied variables in this study are the SL program (in both intervention modalities) as independent variable, while the dependent variable refers to the SEC of the PETEs.

Moreover, the use of mixed methods represents a new trend in education (Gullo and Sperandio, 2020; Cheung and Ng, 2021; Raza et al., 2021), allowing us to analyze the research question from a double perspective. In addition, the implementation of our design differs from previous work related to SL (Domangue and Carson, 2008; Miller, 2012), since it performs a qualitative data transformation and combines three types of results in the discussion (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007; Camerino et al., 2012).

Globally, the results obtained in the quantitative analysis indicate that the two experimental groups improved their SEC significantly. Although EGI results tend to be higher than EGII, the post-test results reveal no significant differences between them. However, qualitative analysis shows an enormous impact on EGI students describing a substantial development of all personal, social, and innovative features. Similarly, the qualitative data transformation (qualitative results quantitatively expressed) reinforces this global assessment, since the interviews show so many references to social entrepreneurship—more than 2,400. Altogether, this evidence points to outstanding progress in the PETEs’ SE, due to their participation in the SL program. This situation agrees with most theoretical works regarding the impact of SL on education (Butin, 2003; Seban, 2013), as well as several meta-analyses concerning SL effects (Conway et al., 2009; Celio et al., 2011; Yorio and Ye, 2012; Carson and Raguse, 2014). In addition, as there are no statistical differences between the post-test measures of both groups, new proposals of intervention with bigger differences between modalities should be analyzed in future research.

Moreover, the category-by-category analysis supports the global findings described above. The quantitative study reveals that EGI improved significantly in two out of three categories on the SECS, while EGII registered non-significant differences. Similarly, the post-test comparison indicates that EGI recorded superior results in all three categories and in 16 out of 17 features compared to EGII. Results are highest for the category of social features, followed by the categories of personal and innovative features, respectively. In addition, there are significant correlations between the categories of the SEC in all cases and between the individual features in 92 out of 136 cases, evidencing the strong relationship among the features analyzed. The qualitative data transformation shows a similar distribution with the social features category being the most important. However, in this case more of the comments addressed the innovative features than the personal features. These results are supported by the qualitative study, where the PETEs specifically emphasize their social experiences and learning (Conway et al., 2009; Celio et al., 2011; Yorio and Ye, 2012). Furthermore, it is important to highlight the impressive results obtained in all categories and features, both according to an analysis of the quantitative data and based on the qualitative data transformation analysis, which suggests a significant impact for the SL program in promoting the SEC on the PETEs.

Therefore, the results from the different analyses performed present highly coherent and complementary data. In addition, this situation indicated that the SL program had a very similar effect among the PETEs in this study. The next sections offer an analysis of the results obtained in the individual features of the SEC.

The first feature, confidence, registers high scores in both quantitative and qualitative data transformation analyses. In addition, the improvement in the pre-test/post-test score on EGI is one of the largest observed. Moreover, the qualitative evidence shows how the PETEs increased both their personal and professional confidence, specifically in relation to handling functionally diverse populations and teaching sessions of PE. Altogether, the data points to a huge enhancement of the PETEs’ confidence during the study (Miller, 2012; Robinson and Meyer, 2012).

Goal-oriented motivation presents one of the highest results in the quantitative analysis and is the most cited category within the qualitative data transformation. Indeed, this is the only feature that shows statistically significant improvement in the pre-test/post-test EGI comparison. The qualitative data relates the desires of PETEs to develop teaching competencies related to their academic fields (Wilkinson et al., 2013; Capella-Peris et al., 2020b). They also showed a strong intention to help the children, improving their behavior and offering a quality service experience.

Ability to take risks also shows impressive results in the quantitative study. Similarly, the qualitative data transformation represents almost 25% of references coded for personal features. The qualitative analysis reveals the tendency of PETEs to face unknown situations with a high degree of uncertainty. This is mainly related to their participation in the SL program and the benefits of dealing with children with special needs (Miller, 2012; Santiago et al., 2016).

Ability to learn and evolve reveals more moderate results in the qualitative data transformation analysis but still shows high scores in the quantitative data. Moreover, the qualitative analysis reveals how improvement in this feature is connected to enhanced personal, social, and professional competencies among PETEs. All of this suggests both personal and professional progress, enhancing social skills as well as citizen participation (Whitley et al., 2017).

Creativity received moderate results on quantitative and qualitative data transformation analyses. However, it does show one of the higher levels of improvement in the pre-test/post-test comparison for EGI. In addition, analysis of the qualitative data reveals great advances in preparing and implementing new practice activities and highlights the relationship between this feature and the ability to create ideas. Some authors associate both elements with the ability to “create differences” in the community through SL (Fleck et al., 2017).

Giving help and cooperation, was the most cited of the social features and received one of the highest post-tests results for both groups. In addition, the qualitative analysis suggests that it benefits from both the service provided and the improvement in communication skills (Lee et al., 2018a).

Social awareness feature obtained remarkable scores in the quantitative study. The qualitative analysis reveals how this feature was developed for the PETEs; basically, it resulted from taking care of the special educational needs of the children receiving the service (Covitt, 2002; Furco and Root, 2010; Himelein et al., 2010; Peralta et al., 2015; Santiago et al., 2016).

Coexistence and respect of public affairs represents the highest score in the quantitative analysis and holds third place in the qualitative data transformation. The qualitative study suggests that it developed alongside attitudes of understanding and deference among PETEs towards the child participants and through contact with other involved groups, including classmates, teachers, and family members of the children, neighborhood and community members, and the school itself as an educational organization (Furco and Root, 2010; Celio et al., 2011; Santiago et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2018a).

Resilience received a high number of comments in the interviews and remarkable scores in the quantitative analysis as well. Both results are reinforced by the qualitative study, which indicates that students improve their response significantly when they face conflicts and unfavorable situations while providing the service (Covitt, 2002).

Responsibility received outstanding quantitative response in both experimental groups. The qualitative data describes that PETEs had to deal with new and complicated experiences related to preparing and performing the service, developing their social, personal, citizen and civic responsibility (Celio et al., 2011; Fleck et al., 2017; Whitley et al., 2017; Iyer et al., 2018). The enhancement of social responsibility is especially interesting because it contrasts with previous research in PE (Chiva-Bartoll et al., 2020b).

Commitment and coherence was one of the features valued most strongly in the quantitative study. Qualitative data shows that the promotion of this social feature occurs due to experience of service provision, along with a desire to participate again in similar proposals. That improvement has been described in previous work in relation to different views of commitment: community, civic, academic, and social (Furco and Root, 2010; Celio et al., 2011; Capella-Peris et al., 2020b). Likewise, there is also precedent for the stimulation of this feature in PE (Robinson and Meyer, 2012).

Ability to create ideas obtained high quantitative records and sits second in frequency of interview mentions within the social features category. The qualitative study explains how this feature was improved due to the PETEs development of reflection skills. They analyzed questions not only about education in general, but also about practice implementation individually. All of this suggests an increase in critical and reflective thinking skills through SL (Yorio and Ye, 2012; Carrington et al., 2015; Barnes and Caprino, 2016; Lee et al., 2018b).

Leadership, received the lowest scores in the quantitative and qualitative data transformation analyses, which contrasts with previous results (Chiva-Bartoll et al., 2020b). However, the qualitative study described that the PETEs led multiple activities while working with the children and their university peers (Celio et al., 2011).

Initiative represents the best improvement between pre-test and post-test measurements in the quantitative analysis for both groups. The qualitative data indicates how the PETEs enhanced this feature through implementation of the service, especially by conducting sessions concerning motor and body language games; this points to a personal improvement in organizational and management competencies (National Youth Leadership Council, 2004; Carrington et al., 2015) regarding how to handle such aspects as children, materials, space, and time in the course of sessions (Webster et al., 2017; Capella-Peris et al., 2020b).

Ability to change received a high number of quotations in the qualitative data transformation analysis, with more than 20% of references coded for innovative features. The qualitative study indicates a positive disposition among PETEs to adjust their perceptions of service recipients and the implementation processes while performing the game sessions. These situations imply important modifications referring to teaching competencies and preconceived stereotypes (Peralta et al., 2015; Santiago et al., 2016).

Being part of social networks is the most cited feature on interviews for the category of innovative features. The comments extracted in the qualitative study refer to the relationship between the SL students and several groups of others, such as professors, university mates, members of the institutions involved, and children receiving the service and their families, which is in line with previous SL effects on PETEs (Salter and Halbert, 2019).

The qualitative results explain how PETEs developed their ability to identify opportunities taking advantage of their participation in the SL program on personal, academic, and professional levels. For this reason, all of them valued the experience positively, signifying an improvement not only for them but also for society. Basically, the main focus was on their potential to develop personal, interpersonal, and citizen participation skills (Ward et al., 2017; Whitley et al., 2017).

In addition, the SL program stimulated several personal, social, and innovative features of great interest to this study. The most outstanding aspects reflect a change in PETEs’ perceptions of the children (Baldwin et al., 2007; Conway et al., 2009; Wilkinson et al., 2013). Another remarkable feature is their overall satisfaction with the SL program (Miller, 2012; Fleck et al., 2017), even appreciating the opportunity to participate in the educational experience (Himelein et al., 2010). This situation had a direct impact on their attitudes towards the school and academic learning in general (Furco and Root, 2010; Celio et al., 2011; Barnes and Caprino, 2016). The promotion of ethical and moral values through SL represents another remarkable feature from an educational and social point of view (Yorio and Ye, 2012). Specifically, this highlights the development of empathy, which facilitated the change in PETEs’ perceptions of the service recipients and a related improvement in care for their individual needs (Baldwin et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2018a).

More enhanced features to take into consideration are improvements in diversity understanding (Baldwin et al., 2007), the development of interpersonal skills (Ward et al., 2017; Whitley et al., 2017), overcoming the initial doubts and insecurities about classroom management, reinforcing feelings of effectiveness among students (Miller, 2012), the connection between practice skills and the context of preparation for lessons (Baldwin et al., 2007), as well as the promotion of teaching independence and activism that may encourage innovation and social change (Sharra, 2005; Meidl and Sulentic, 2018).

Finally, the complementarity among the various measurement strategies used in this mixed-methods analysis reveals a marked interrelation among the personal, social, and innovation-related features enhanced by the PETEs. This situation explains why the SEC was promoted broadly instead of addressing needed improvements in various individual features.

The approach of mixed-methods, using methodological triangulation, offers a great opportunity to analyze the promotion of social entrepreneurship in physical education teacher education students. Indeed, highly reinforcing and complementary records emerge among the different results observed in this study. From this data, service-learning fostered the SEC of the PETEs, signifying an educational experience that boosted their personal, social, and innovative features. Additionally, the qualitative results offer valuable information to help researchers understand how these learning outcomes were achieved.

Therefore, the H ₁ and H ₂ hypotheses are accepted as there are significant improvements (p < 0.01) in the SECS results for EGI and EGII, respectively. On the other hand, the H ₃ hypothesis is rejected, as there is no significant difference (p < 0.05) in the SECS results for EGI compared with EGII. Meanwhile, the depth of experience and insight demonstrated by the PETEs, in terms of increasing their SE, offers a broader answer to the research question.

The fact that life histories were only elaborated with students from EGI is a main limitation in this study. Regarding future research, it would be necessary to contrast SL modalities with bigger differences in terms of duration and intensity. Similarly, it would be promising to develop new strategies to assess SL with greater applications in practice, to open lines of inquiry that analyze the effects of SL on service recipients and community members, and to study the impact of this methodology throughout the entire teaching-learning process, analyzing its long-term effects on students, recipients, and society.