It is argued that very little time in teacher education courses is devoted to teaching PSTs the importance of recognizing signs of stress and practical coping strategies they can implement (Gustems-Carnicer and Calderón, 2013). In a study of Primary PSTs (N = 54) from an Australian University, Hemmings and Hockley (2002, p. 25) identified that “teachers have not been trained either to handle their stressors or to develop a variety of successful coping mechanisms.”

Coping is viewed as a process rather than a trait or outcome (Deasy et al., 2014) and a coping strategy is an adaptive response to a specific stressor (Folkman et al., 1986). An individual’s ability to prevent psychological distress is linked to personal resources and coping strategies (Khramtsova et al., 2007). The importance of interpersonal skills for coping with stress was identified by Lindqvist and colleagues (2017). The education students in the study shared that their mentors were important for support yet on the other hand, created additional stress. An important consideration is that individuals’ wellbeing can influence how they interact and engage with their peers and colleagues (Le Cornu, 2013).

The importance of programs for PSTs and ECTs that prioritize wellbeing and stress management strategies are consistently cited in research (e.g., Morris and Morris, 1980; Greer and Greer, 1992; Lindqvist et al., 2017). In particular, this research emphasizes the importance of providing information surrounding how stress manifests in the body, and the long-term impact of stress; the importance of nutrition and exercise; muscle relaxation techniques, mentoring, and time management skills. Early research, for example, Greer and Greer (1992) highlighted the need for explicit professional development sessions educating individuals on how stress manifests (physically and psychologically) and provided techniques to counteract stress and tension in the body (relaxation techniques). Furthermore, Greer and Greer stressed the importance of healthy dietary choices and physical exercise must be included. A stress management program or intervention must be holistic in addressing all facets of wellbeing. This approach is supported by the more recent research of Soloway (2016) and the impact of the Mindfulness-Based Wellness Education (MBWE) program. The MBWE from the University of Toronto provides a multifaceted approach to increasing awareness of the importance of wellbeing and stress management through the inclusion of professional development relating to a specific facet of wellbeing; however, the program is primarily a modified Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (mMBSR) program (Kabat-Zinn, 1991).

The MBSR program developed by Kabat-Zinn (1991) has been extensively trialled in clinical settings, positive psychology (see Ivtzan, 2016) and modified for school settings (e.g. Gold et al., 2010; Flook et al., 2013; Frank et al., 2015). Reported improvements include decreased perceived stress, anxiety, depression and increases in wellbeing and mindfulness. The delivery of the different interventions (e.g. contact time, duration, method of instruction) has varied however, the mindfulness-based techniques and strategies are consistent. There has been extensive growth in mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) for educators in school settings and the development of a variety of programs. For example, the Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) program (see Jennings et al., 2013; Sharp and Jennings, 2016; Jennings et al., 2017) and the Stress Management and Relaxation Techniques in education (SMART) program (Roeser et al., 2013). The Community Approach to Learning Mindfully (CALM) program for educators (Harris et al., 2016) moves away from the traditional MBSR program structure (8-weekly sessions, 2-h in length) and includes 16 weekly sessions (20-min in length). The CALM program is also one of the limited studies that include a yoga-based CI.

Carmody and Baer (2008) note that it is worth investigating the benefits of mindful yoga after the unexpected finding from their study of nine different MBSR programs (n = 174). The findings indicated that the home yoga practise (versus sitting meditation and body scan) was more strongly associated with increased mindfulness (non-judgement), wellbeing and decreased perceived stress and anxiety, even though the home yoga practise was reported for less total hours than the other formal practices. An interesting point raised by Harris et al. (2016) is that CIs for educators include some yoga postures; however, there are scarce studies that investigate primarily yoga-based programs for teacher wellbeing. In fact, in Australia, there are limited yoga-based programs for teachers. However, there have been recent developments in mindfulness-based programs for teachers based on or including the MBSR program (e.g., Hwang et al., 2019).

In the present study, the CI promoted integrated wellbeing and included strategies for stress management drawn from the system of Yoga. The aim was to highlight the need for stress management and health and wellbeing promotion through professional learning and practical experience. Teachers who receive training in health promotion (at university) are more likely to engage in health promotion activities once employed as a registered teacher (Speller et al., 2010). This supports the argument for health promotion and wellbeing initiatives at the pre-service level.

Given the extensive history of the practice of yoga, there is no one single definition. Patanjali defines yoga as “the controlling or stilling” (Pradhan, 2014). Modern interpretations of yoga are drawn from Patanjali’s Sutras and the teachings from the Bhagavad Gita (circa 600–100BCE). The Yoga Sutras are grouped into “eight limbs” in the system of Yoga. Limbs one through five are preparatory steps for limbs six through eight (see Table 1). The Ethical Principles (limb one and two) yamas and niyamas are not based on moral or value judgements or religious connection; the aim is to regulate emotions, promote positive social behaviours and quiet the mind (Cope, 2006), therefore promoting emotion regulation. Asana were traditionally used to prepare the body for meditation and extended periods of sitting or lying in meditation (Feuerstein, 2011). The modern Western perception of yoga emphasizes the importance of the physical practice (asana) and basic relaxation techniques (meditation), however asana is not merely a form of exercise but a set of preparatory steps for the practitioner (Pradhan, 2014). The fourth limb pranayama (breathing techniques) assists the practitioner in calming the body and mind, increasing mind-body awareness (Gard et al., 2014). Since respiration is essential for survival, changes in respiration are given the highest priority (Streeter et al., 2012) and there is a bidirectional relationship between breathing and emotion (Brown and Gerbarg, 2005b). Philippot et al. (2002) suggested that emotions can be induced by using specific instruction and altering breathing patterns. It was reported that feelings of joy are associated with “regular, moderately deep and slow breathing through the nose with minimal thoracic tension, tremors, and sighs” (p. 615). This breathing pattern aligns with some of the controlled breathing techniques (pranayama) included in yoga practice. In Table 1, limbs five to eight are grouped as ‘meditation practices’. An integrated yoga practice, includes the ethical princples within the guided meditation practices. Often the terms yoga, meditation and mindfulness are used interchangeably. The system of yoga includes mindfulness practices (e.g., focused attention [FA] and open monitoring [OM] meditation) which are included in the present study intervention. In fact, research surrounding body awareness and mindfulness have indicated that the same mechanisms may operate in yoga and mindfulness-based interventions (Gard et al., 2012).

Mind-body therapies are not easily classified as either top-down or bottom-up mechanisms. Yoga and progressive muscle relaxation (‘body scan meditation’) include both bottom-up and top-down mechanisms, for example, peripheral sensory vessels stimulated by visceral activities (e.g., decreased muscle tension) and top-down mechanisms of focused attention and conscious relaxation (Taylor et al., 2010). Importantly, initiating bidirectional mechanisms creates reciprocal feedback and evidence suggests “mind-body practices incorporate numerous therapeutic effects on stress responses, including reductions in anxiety, depression, and anger, and increased pain tolerance, self-esteem, energy levels, ability to relax, and ability to cope with stressful situations” (Kim et al., 2013, p. 827).

An intervention for educators that includes an integrative practice of yoga has the potential to provide a holistic approach for promoting wellbeing. The six-factory model of psychological wellbeing (Ryff and Singer, 1996; 2006) was adopted in the present study. The six-factor model includes the following dimensions:

• Self-acceptance: attitude towards oneself

The qualitative findings were linked to the dimensions of wellbeing however, due to the large volume of data collected in the study, the qualitative findings are not reported in this paper.

The study was included in a Higher Degree by Research (Doctoral of Philosophy) and complied with the provisions contained in the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007) (Australian Research Council and Universities, 2018) and the regulations governing experimentation on humans. The protocol was approved by The University of Queensland Human Research Ethics Committee (approval number 2017002108) and the five universities included in the study.

Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS). The MAAS was included to measure the change in attention awareness (Brown and Ryan, 2003). The MAAS has been previous included in studies examining MBIs for educators (e.g. Kostanski, 2007; Kemeny et al., 2012; Hue and Lau, 2015; Brown, 2017). The 15-item self-report measure does not produce sub-scales (facets), it is scored to produce an overall score for attention awareness (mindfulness) as a state not a trait. Commonly used scales in MBIs focus on the facets of mindfulness (e.g. Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire Baer et al., 2006). The MAAS is a 6-point Likert scale focuses on dispositional mindfulness and uses indirect items. E.g. I rush through activities without being really attentive to them. Indirect items are preferred for examining the characteristic of mindfulness as a natural state, that is, when an individual enters into a mindful state. The MAAS has reported high test-retest reliability, convergent validity, known-group validity, and internal consistency levels from 0.80 to 0.90 (Brown and Ryan, 2003).

Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). The PSS (Cohen et al., 1983) is an established 10 item self-report measure used to assess psychological distress. The PSS has been included in studies examining the use of MBIs for teacher wellbeing (Katz et al., 2016; Hester, 2017), evaluating PST stress levels (Geng et al., 2015; 2016; Hopkins et al., 1997) and PST wellbeing (Hue and Lau, 2015; Brown, 2017; Kerr et al., 2017). The PSS has been included as an evaluative measure in studies including MBIs from the health sciences (Carlson et al., 2004; Poulin et al., 2008; Chambers et al., 2016). The PSS uses a 5-point Likert scale. Summed scores above 20 are reported as “high stress” scores and 13 is considered an “average stress” score. In a US population study (N = 2,387), the reported norm group scores were 13.7 for females (n = 1,406) and 12.1 for males (n = 926) (Cohen, 1994). The reported coefficient alphas ranged from 0.77 to 0.78 (Jennings et al., 2017).

Personal Wellbeing Index (PWI). The International Wellbeing Group developed the PWI from the Comprehensive Quality of Life Scale (ComQOL) (Cummins, McCabe, Romeo, and Gullone, 1994). The PWI was included to provide an overall score for subjective wellbeing and at present, the PWI has not been included in previous MBIs for educators. The seven domains from the ComQOL have been validated as accurate measurements for subjective wellbeing and life satisfaction (Cummins, 1996). The 11-point End-Defined Response scale includes the domains of: health, safety, future security, achievement in life, standard of living, relationships, spirituality and standard of living. The Cronbach alpha range is 0.70 and 0.85 in Australian and international studies (International Wellbeing Group, 2013).

Brief COPE Scale. The Brief COPE Scale (Carver et al., 1993) was included to measure coping strategies, and has previously been used to assess stressors for tertiary students (Sam, Muttusamy, Yee, Ayapanaido, and Parasuraman, 2016). The Brief COPE Scale was developed from the 60-item full COPE Inventory (Carver, Scheier, and Kumari Weintraub, 1989). The dispositional format was used for the 28-items; for example, I try to get advice or help from other people about what to do. The 4-point Likert scale items are grouped into 14 sub-scales. The sub-scales were ranked in order of most frequently adopted coping styles for the participant sample. All 14 sub-scales have a coefficient alpha above 0.60 (Carver, 1997). All of the sub-scales were included in the results however, the sub-scales of consideration in the present study are active coping, planning, positive reframing, and acceptance due to the connection with mindful attention awareness (mindfulness) (Skinner and Beers, 2016).

Responses to the self-report measures were exported from Qualtrics (2005) (online survey software) to IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 26), cleaned and re-coded as necessary. Descriptive and inferential statistics were completed for all datasets, and the data met the required assumptions for paired-sample t-tests. The participant dataset from Phase One was coded as “first year,” “mid-degree,” and “final year” to identify their stage in ITT. A Shapiro-Wilk test confirmed normality of the datasets for Phase Two and a paired-sample t-test was completed for the MAAS and PSS for the intervention group (N = 20). An independent samples t-test was completed to compare the control (Phase One, Time One) and Phase Two intervention group (baseline) MAAS and PSS scores and the control (Phase One, Time Two) and Phase Two post-intervention scores.

The intervention was developed after the review of the recommendations from the literature and the mechanisms for supporting stress management. The mechanisms for stress management included in the intervention and the intervention design are detailed elsewhere (see Hepburn et al., 2021). Professional learning that is relevant for PST is recommended for supporting teacher resilience (e.g., Mansfield et al., 2016). MBIs for educators include yoga postures to increase mindfulness (Harris et al., 2016), whereas a unique aspect of the Integrated Wellbeing and Stress Management program is that the postures and techniques were specifically selected to align with the focus for each unit and provide strategies (resources) for the participants. Previous MBIs and CIs for educators focus on the application of mindfulness-based techniques and strategies in professional settings only (e.g., Roeser et al., 2013; Jennings et al., 2017) whereas the present program focused on professional and personal practical applications and information surrounding the benefits. The 6-h program was delivered as three weekly sessions that were 2-h in length:

• 45–60-min of theory to support the activities for the session

A paired-samples t-test analysis was completed to address Research Question 1:

1. Is there a change in perceived stress, mindful attention awareness, subjective wellbeing and coping for pre-service teachers from the start to the conclusion of the academic year.

The paired-samples t-test results for the PSS, MAAS and PWI are presented in Table 4. The reported norm population score for the PSS is 14.2 for individuals 18–29 years (Cohen, 1994). Scores above 20 are regarded as “high stress” (Cohen et al., 1983). The difference in the mean scores for PSS (n = 74) at Time One (M = 21.19, SD = 6.175) and PSS at Time Two (M = 19.84, SD = 5.866) for the conditions t (73) = 1.764, p = 0.082) do not support the contention that the perceived stress levels change (increase or decrease) from the start to the conclusion of the academic year. At Time One and Two, 50% of the participants reported a score above 20 (“high stress”).

The mean PSS scores were determined for each sub-group: “first year,” “mid-degree,” and “final year” for Time One and Time Two. All the sub-groups are above the reported norm population score (12.3–13.7) (Cohen, 1994) suggesting elevated stress levels across all ITT degrees. The paired samples t-test ( x ¯ _d = 1.35, s _d = 6.58) indicated a small effect size (d = 0.2) (Evans, 1996) from Time One to Time Two (summarized in Table 5). The MAAS scores and PWI scores for each sub-group are included in Tables 6, 7, respectively.

The MAAS (n = 72) at Time One (M = 3.49, SD = 0.72) and Time Two (M = 3.48, SD = 0.81), t (71) = 0.098, p = 0.922) did not produce a significant change. The paired samples t-test ( x ¯ _d = 0.007, s _d = 0.64) indicated a small effect size (d = 0.01) (Evans, 1996). The results were below the normative mean range for adults and college-aged students (4.2 and 3.83 respectively) (Brown and Ryan, 2003).

For the PWI scores, the p-value was less than 0.05 therefore there was a significant change (decrease) in the mean scores for subjective wellbeing (n = 79) at Time One (M = 57.43, SD = 10.08) and Time Two (M = 55.24, SD = 11.12) conditions; t (78) = 2.04, p = 0.04). The paired samples t-test ( x ¯ _d = 2.1, s _d = 9.5) indicated a small effect size (d = 0.23) (Evans). The PWI scores were below the reported norm for Western countries (70–80 points) (International Wellbeing Group, 2013).

The Brief COPE Scale included 14 sub-scales, at Time One and Two, acceptance and self-blame were the highest reported coping strategies with religion and substance use the lowest. Paired-samples t-tests for the sub-scales for the Brief COPE Scale (see Table 8) did not produce significant results for Time One and Time Two. The narrow confidence intervals suggest the sample size and variability of the sample are limited and there is potential for repeating the survey with a larger sample size to estimate the mean difference with more precision.

In summary, the results suggest that the participant group were experiencing elevate perceived stress at Time One and Time Two, MAAS levels similarly remained constant and there was a decrease in PWI scores.

A paired-sample t-test and independent t-test was completed to address Research Question 2:

2. Does participating in a 6-h Complementary Intervention change, if at all, mindful attention awareness and perceived stress for pre-service teachers?

Phase One aimed to identify what changes, if any, were there in the levels of perceived stress, subjective wellbeing, coping strategies, and mindful attention awareness for pre-service teachers from the start (Time One) to the end of the academic year (Time Two).

The overall decrease in PSTs subjective wellbeing (PWI scores) from Time One to Time Two (p = 0.04) may be influenced by contextual factors. The results indicated there was neither a significant increase nor decrease in perceived stress, regardless of year level (e.g. first-year or final-year). The results support the argument by Stallman and Hurst (2016) that stress levels for PSTs remain constant across the duration of the academic year. The findings illustrated that the participant sample remained above the reported “average” stress level of 13 (Cohen et al., 1983) and the age-matched reported norms. The “high” stress scores of 20 or above at Time One and Time Two, support Stallman’s argument that PSTs experience chronic stress levels across the duration of the academic year. Reporting higher levels of perceived stress at the start of the academic year could be influenced by contextual factors such as enrolling in new courses, scheduling of personal commitments, transitioning from full-time work or high school settings to university settings (Goddard and O’Brien, 2006; Gustems-Carnicer and Calderón, 2013). The stress levels of graduate and undergraduate PSTs have previously been explored by Geng et al. (2015); however, to date, there are limited studies that examine the relationships between perceived stress and wellbeing for PST.

At the end of the academic year, the “final-year” sub-group reported lower perceived stress and higher subjective wellbeing, which may have been influenced by contextual factors such as completing final assessment items and practicum placements and securing employment. Drawing on the experiences detailed in the literature, final-year education students leaving the university setting and transitioning from pre-service to in-service teachers may experience feelings of insecurity, self-doubt and confusion (Le Maistre and Paré, 2010; Le Cornu, 2013) which could potentially influence subjective wellbeing. PSTs entering the profession may experience emotional reactions to their changing professional identity, subsequently impacting subjective wellbeing (Pillen, Beijaard and den Brok., 2013).

The mid-degree participants experienced a decrease in perceived stress and maintained subjective wellbeing. Mid-degree students who have completed their first teaching practicum may reflect on their professional ability and their decision to enter the teaching profession (Chaplain, 2008; Murray-Harvey et al., 2000). Whereas first-year participants PSS scores were maintained and the participants reported lower subjective wellbeing. This may reflect the significant changes experienced by PSTs when moving from high school education to tertiary education or returning to study (e.g., leaving paid employment) (Goddard, O’Brien and Goddard, 2006; Le Maistre and Paré, 2010).

The mean scores were included in the results for each sub-group in the participant sample; however, a detailed exploration of the differences between the sub-groups was beyond the scope of present study. The differences between the sub-groups warrant further investigation with a larger participant sample. A recommendation for future research would be to examine the levels of subjective wellbeing, mindful attention awareness and perceived stress for different cohorts of education students (e.g., degree type, entry-level). Additional information surrounding the experiences of PST may provide guidance and inform the development of ITT courses and programs.

The results suggest the participants engaged in planning, which is a proactive coping strategy; however, social support (emotional support) was lower. Acceptance relates to mindful attention awareness (mindfulness) (Skinner and Beers, 2016), and this was the highest reported strategy even though the MAAS scores for the participant sample were below the reported norm average. Although there was no significant change in coping strategies, the highest reported strategies were acceptance, self-blame, planning, and self-distraction. The results indicated there was neither an increase nor a decrease in MAAS scores and coping mechanisms. Proactive and active coping strategies have a positive influence on psychological distress (Gustems-Carnicer and Calderón, 2013), and positive coping strategies, including seeking social support are positively correlated to psychological wellbeing (Deasy et al., 2014).

Due to the unique design of the intervention in the present study (3-week duration, content relating to holistic wellbeing, theoretical and physical components), there are limited studies that allow for a direct comparison of the findings. However, it has been argued that there is a relationship between attention awareness, perceived stress and subjective wellbeing (Hepburn, 2020), and wellbeing-based teacher training education can have a positive impact on classroom practise and PST wellbeing (Soloway, 2016).

As predicted in the introduction, there was a significant decrease in perceived stress and an increase in mindful attention awareness. The intervention group pre-program PSS scores were above the aged-matched reported norm score but similar to the “high stress” control group. Likewise, the pre-program MAAS scores were not significantly different compared to the control group, indicating that the participant’s baseline scores aligned with the larger participant sample (control group).

The post-program PSS and MAAS scores produced a statically significant difference. The large effect size for PSS scores indicated that the intervention group were approximately one standard deviation lower than the control group. The medium effect size for MAAS indicated that the intervention group reported an increase in MAAS whereas the control group experienced no change. Therefore, the results suggest that the pre-service teachers who completed a 3-week wellbeing program experienced increased attention awareness and decreased perceived stress compared to individuals who did not complete the Integrated Wellbeing and Stress Management program.

Previous research has indicated a general pattern of a positive correlation between attention awareness and wellbeing and negative correlation with perceived stress with participants reporting a decrease in perceived stress and increased mindful attention awareness after a 6-week MBSR intervention (Hue and Lau, 2015). The 6-week mindfulness program for pre-service teachers conducted by Kerr et al. (2017) presented evidence that the program was effective with regards to emotion regulation, decreasing perceived stress and increasing mindfulness. Diaphragmatic breathing practices were included in the intervention and may relate to the increase in attention awareness and decreased perceived stress. There is a wide variety of breathing practises and techniques included in pranayama (see Rosen, 2002). Inefficient breathing can trigger the sympathetic response (via the afferent vagal nerve). This breathing pattern is associated with the fight-flight-freeze response, commonly associated with feelings of anxiety, fear and fatigue. Efficient breathing, on the other hand, stimulates the parasympathetic response via afferent vagal nerves. Diaphragmatic breathing creates a sense of calm and ease in the body (Rosen, 2002). The sequencing in the physical practice in the intervention emphasized synchronization within the breath and movement from one pose to the next. A significant characteristic of a posture (asana) is the emphasis on kinesthesis, interoceptive and proprioceptive awareness. It has been hypothesized that the movement component of yoga-based practises facilitates the processing and integration of interoceptive and proprioceptive signals in the brain (Schmalzl et al., 2016). It could be suggested that the physical practice support the increased sense of awareness experienced by the participants (e.g. increased MAAS scores). Increased awareness of the stress response is a recommendation for reducing burnout (Greer and Greer, 1992; Travers, 2017).

Introducing techniques and strategies for promoting health and wellbeing during initial teacher training at university may provide valuable support for PSTs and enable them with strategies to utilize and implement whilst at university and prior to entering the school environment, consequently laying a foundation for supporting health and wellbeing from the onset. The foundational approach to wellbeing could be built upon and extended during the early career period to provide those entering the profession with valuable ongoing support for their wellbeing (see Hepburn et al., 2021). Like other pilot studies, including wellbeing programs and initiatives, the small sample size was a limitation; however, the results warrant further investigation with a larger participant sample.

Relying on participants to provide a valid email address for the Time Two survey influenced the sample size, due to invalid responses. Timing of the survey (e.g. assessment period) may have limited the sample due to time constraints and time required to complete the survey or attend the program. Participation was not linked to coursework (e.g. credit towards assessment) therefore it was not incentivized. Participation required that the PST attended the session outside of class hours (e.g. Saturday or weekday evenings). Therefore, clashing commitment (e.g. part time work) limited the participant sample. The small participant sample size presented a limitation in the study design and therefore the results may not be generalizable. Similarly, the participants were self-selected however, they had limited previous experience with mind-body therapies or CIs and MBIs. Further exploration of the experiences of PST could be incorporated into ITT programs including longitudinal studies examining the transition of teachers from the pre-service to early career period.