Predation is a central ecological force shaping trophic dynamics, influencing population regulation, species distributions, and evolutionary trajectories (Begon et al., 2006). While classical food web models often depict vertebrates preying upon invertebrates, an emerging body of literature emphasizes the importance of reverse trophic interactions where invertebrates act as predators of vertebrates (Nyffeler and Knörnschild, 2013; Nyffeler and Gibbons, 2022).

Across a range of taxa including arachnids, insects, myriapods, and crustaceans, invertebrates have been documented preying on vertebrate animals in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (McCormick and Polis, 1982; Formanowicz and Bradley, 1987; Mori and Ohba, 2004; Nyffeler and Knörnschild, 2013; Valdez, 2020; Nyffeler and Gibbons, 2022; etc.). Among invertebrate predators, centipedes (class Chilopoda) represent a particularly intriguing and underappreciated group capable of subduing vertebrate prey (Undheim and King, 2011; Dugon and Arthur, 2012; Clark, 1979). Members of the order Scolopendromorpha, especially within the genus Scolopendra, are large, nocturnal, and venomous generalists that use modified forelegs (forcipules) to inject venom, immobilize prey, and initiate extra-oral digestion (Undheim and King, 2011; Dugon and Arthur, 2012). Although their primary diet consists of arthropods, accumulating evidence reveals that scolopendrid centipedes frequently prey on small vertebrates across diverse environments (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1968; Forti et al., 2007; Bauer, 1990; Molinari et al., 2005; Srbek-Araujo et al., 2012, etc.).

These interactions between centipede and vertebrate are often overlooked due to the secretive and nocturnal habits of centipedes, yet they may exert significant top-down pressures on small vertebrate populations, particularly in resource-limited habitats or insular ecosystems (Halpin et al., 2021). Unlike most terrestrial invertebrates, large scolopendrid centipedes are capable of overpowering prey exceeding their own body mass (Dugon and Arthur, 2012). This functional capacity positions them uniquely in terrestrial food webs, where they may occupy mid-level predator niches and influence vertebrate community composition. Their role in nutrient transfer and energy flow, especially in tropical and subtropical regions, is only beginning to be understood (Nyffeler and Gibbons, 2022).

This review synthesizes over a century of records on centipede predation on vertebrates, emphasizing the diversity of prey, attack strategies, ecological contexts, and the evolutionary implications of such interactions. By integrating published literature and novel observations, including the first documented case of bat predation by a centipede in Asia, we aim to expand the ecological narrative surrounding centipedes and highlight their role as key, albeit cryptic, predators of vertebrates.

Recently, a team of scientists of Zoological Survey of India carried out a faunal survey in the dry tropical forests of West Bengal, India. The study area, Nakpur a village situated in the Nalhati Block of Birbhum district of West Bengal state in India (24.295684°N, 88.011694°E) which is primarily occupied by crop agricultural fields. During the insect survey in the study area, a centipede was observed preying on a bat in the hollow of a Sacred Fig (Ficus religiosa) tree at 20:30 h on 19 June 2024. This rare interaction was captured through photographs ( Figure 1 ) and video ( Supplementary material ) to provide significant documentation. The centipede was identified as a species belonging to the genus Rhysida (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha: Scolopendridae), based on its head, dorsal body, ultimate legs and leg color, body profile ( Figure 1a ), and spiracle formula one of the diagnostic characters of the genus against other scolopendrids (Joshi et al., 2020; Sureshan, 2024; Bonato et al., 2025), while the bat was identified as a species belonging to genus Pipistrellus (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) due to its small size (≈ 6 cm), body shape, and internarial groove ( Figure 1b ) (Bates and Harrison, 1997; Sharma et al., 2024). Due to logistical constraints in the field and the non-invasive nature of the observation, molecular confirmation of species identity was not feasible. Both the bat and centipede were observed at the lower part of the tree, approximately 5 feet above the ground, and the tree was home to the Indian flying fox (Pteropus medius), spotted house gecko (Hemidactylus parvimaculatus), Asian common toad (Duttaphrynus melanostictus), and bee nests. The weather during this observation was warm and humid, reaching a high of around 36°C (96.8°F)- West Bengal’s monsoon season. The centipede was notably longer than the bat (≈ 10 cm). The centipede began to feed on the bat’s wing membrane ( Figure 1c ) and proceeding deeper into the body of the bat ( Figure 1d ) while it was still alive ( Figures 1c, e ). The authors noted that the predatory actions occurred after the bat had been immobilized, yet its head continued moving while the centipede was feeding. After capturing a one-minute video and taking some photos, the researchers stepped back from the spot to prevent disrupting the centipede’s hunting behavior.

Previous studies (Molinari et al., 2005; Srbek-Araujo et al., 2012; Noronha et al., 2015; Lindley et al., 2017) have reported bat predation by Scolopendra species in the Americas, mainly in caves and artificial structures. This new record suggests that arboreal predation on bats by centipedes may be more widespread than previously thought.

Our analysis on centipede predation on vertebrate reveals a clear taxonomic bias in centipede predation towards reptiles, particularly snakes ( Table 1 ; Figure 2 ). Among the 16 centipede species with documented vertebrate predation, reptiles constitute the most frequently reported prey class. This trend is especially evident in large-bodied Scolopendra species such as Scolopendra subspinipes, Scolopendra gigantea, and Scolopendra heros, which have been recorded subduing snakes often comparable to their own size (Valdez, 2020; Easterla, 1975; van Buurt and Dilrosun, 2017; Pwa et al., 2023). The elongated, limbless morphology of snakes may facilitate subjugation and consumption by centipedes using their powerful forcipules and envenomation tactics (Lewis, 1981). Moreover, snakes often inhabit microhabitats also frequented by centipedes such as forest floors, under logs, or leaf litter thereby increasing encounter rates. This dietary inclination suggests that scolopendrid centipedes, though generalist predators, may exert predatory pressure on certain reptile populations, especially in insular or disturbed ecosystems where snakes are among the few available vertebrate prey.

Vertebrate predation by centipedes, though often overlooked, is neither rare nor ecologically insignificant. Our review reveals that large scolopendrid centipedes occupy a unique trophic niche, with documented ability to subdue vertebrate prey ranging from amphibians and reptiles to birds and mammals across diverse habitats worldwide. The new record from India involving a Rhysida centipede feeding on a live bat in an arboreal setting represents the first such case from Asia and challenges prior assumptions that such interactions are confined to cave or ground environments. Collectively, these findings underscore the ecological versatility, behavioral sophistication, and predatory impact of scolopendrid centipedes. Future research should prioritize quantitative assessments of their predation rates, prey selection, and ecological consequences, especially in tropical and subtropical ecosystems where they may serve as cryptic yet influential components of vertebrate mortality regimes.