As China becomes the world’s second largest economy, the rise of consumerism and the pursuit of higher living standards have resulted in increased national energy consumption, which has had a significant impact on the environment. China has become one of the largest emitters of CO₂ and greenhouse gases globally (Feng Ling and Zhao, 2010; Dietz et al., 2009), with Chinese residents accounting for half of the total emissions (Xin et al., 2021). In response, the Chinese government proposed timeline for carbon neutrality and carbon peaking (dual carbon) on September 22, 2020. Rural areas in China play an important role in achieving the country’s “dual carbon” goals. By 2035, China is expected to achieve agricultural and rural modernization, and by 2050, it will fully realize rural revitalization. It is noteworthy that household energy consumption in some developed countries remains higher than industrial energy consumption, making it an essential area for growth (Huijuan and Yong, 2012).

The term “carbon emission” pertains to the total CO₂ (or CO₂ equivalent emissions) that are released directly or indirectly during the entire lifecycle of a product or service or within a specific geographic region during the interaction process (Huijuan and Yong, 2012). This paper examines the carbon emission related to the greenhouse gases that are produced by residents in Shandong Province during their household consumption (Yusheng et al., 2016). When considering the individual units of households in the country, the total amount of CO₂ emissions is substantial. The carbon emission of residents’ living consumption is composed of two parts: direct and implied carbon emissions. The direct carbon emission mainly comprises household activities such as travel, cooking, and heating. The implied carbon emission, however, consists mainly of the daily necessities of residents, including clothing, food, housing, and transportation. It is important to note that a significant amount of non-energy goods and services are consumed by residents in these activities, which inevitably results in energy consumption and carbon emissions (Kerkhof et al., 2009; Jansen, 2006). In daily life, the household’s implied carbon emission emissions are generally greater than their direct carbon emission emissions (Shui and Dowlatabadi, 2005).

Currently, scholars have made significant progress in researching the carbon emission of residents’ consumption. Firstly, scholars have multiple options when selecting survey subjects. In a study conducted on college students in Hebei Province, it was observed that the highest proportion of carbon emissions is from food and consumption, whereas living has the smallest proportion (Jiao et al., 2023). Another survey conducted on college students in Shandong Province revealed that issues such as high water and electricity consumption and excessive consumption of takeaway packaging are prevalent in universities, and students’ “carbon neutrality” ideology cannot be overlooked (Ying et al., 2022). A study on the carbon emission of the tourism industry in Jiujiang City determined that transportation has the most significant carbon emission, followed by catering and accommodation, and finally tourism activities (Qunming and Ziqi, 2022). According to Kenny and Gray, who studied the carbon footprint of Irish households, trash disposal only makes up 2.1% of the carbon footprint. The highest amount of the carbon footprint, at 42.2%, is caused by direct energy usage, which is followed by transportation (at 35.1%) (Kenny and Gray, 2009). According to research performed by Bin, the majority of energy use and carbon emissions (80%) in the US are caused by household consumption and related economic activity (Shui and Dowlatabadi, 2005). According to Ramaswami et al., there has been a clear increase in locals’ carbon emissions during the past few years (Ramaswami and Chavez, 2013). Secondly, scholars primarily focus on three methods for calculating the carbon emission, namely input-output analysis, life cycle assessment, and hybrid life cycle assessment. Using the life cycle assessment method, it was discovered that the larger the family size and income level of farmers in the Gannan Plateau, the more distant their location from the county town, and thus, the higher the carbon emission of the farmers. Furthermore, the higher the level of education, the higher the Engel coefficient of the household, and the higher the degree of non-agriculturalization, the lower the carbon emission of farmers (Fang et al., 2015). A study of the household carbon emission of British residents from 1990 to 2004 using QM-RIO (Quasi-Multi-Regional Input-Output) revealed that embodied carbon represented the largest proportion, while private cars and aviation accounted for the smallest (Druckman, 2010). In the study of the carbon emission of American households using the MRIO model, 13 categories of consumption were analyzed individually, including but not limited to diet, leisure and entertainment, and transportation. Results indicate that carbon emissions are positively correlated with income level and the advanced nature of consumption categories (Weber and Matthews, 2008). Meanwhile, when using the IPCC [The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the United Nations body for assessing the science related to climate change (IPCC OFFICIAL[EB/OL])] method to conduct research on carbon emissions in urban households in Kunming, energy carbon emissions were found to account for the highest percentage of the carbon emission structure (Qi et al., 2010). In contrast to Chinese domestic scholars, the foreign scholars have conducted more extensive research on the carbon emission of residents’ consumption, examining national and local levels, emission characteristics, and influencing factors. The method of resident consumption carbon emission is relatively mature, primarily based on the input-output method (Input-Output Analysis) (Huijuan and Yong, 2012).

Based on the research of relevant domestic and foreign literature, this paper conducts a detailed study on the carbon emission characteristics of urban and rural residents by using the input-output method and taking Shandong Province as the research sample. Based on this research, we hope:

Theoretical frame diagram of this article is shown in Figure 1 .

It is imperative that the global community prioritize carbon emission reduction and address the issue of climate warming. The rise in global temperature has become a significant concern in human history with the average global temperature having increased by 0.48°C from 1981 to 1990 compared to that of 100 years prior (Jie and Lian, 2013). It is predicted that the global average temperature will rise by 0.3-0.7°C in the next 20 years as compared to the period of 2001-2020 (Xiaojian et al., 2023). Despite a 3.1% growth in the global economy in 2016, greenhouse gas emissions reached an alarming 32.1 billion tons, which is attributed to the rampant and unchecked use of fossil fuels such as crude oil and coal that has resulted in the release of large amounts of greenhouse gases like CO₂ (Yu, 2022). In the 20th century, the average global temperature increased by about 0.6°C and the spring thaw period in the Northern Hemisphere is now observed to occur nine days earlier than it did 150 years ago. The United Nations developed the “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change” in 1992 to curb the acceleration of global warming. This Convention was signed and entered into force in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in the same year, with developed countries agreeing to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to the 1990 level before 2000. Additionally, countries responsible for 60% of global CO₂ emissions have committed to transferring relevant information and technologies to developing countries (What is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)?. Furthermore, climate warming is expected to have a significant impact on human health. First, the impact of heat waves is a significant factor affecting human health before and after global warming. The rise in temperature stimulates the activity of parasites, viruses, and germs, which can attack human immunity and cause low immunity. Second, Climate warming can also increase the speed of photochemical reactions between chemical pollutants in the atmosphere. This can lead to the development of diseases such as acute upper respiratory infections and chronic bronchitis. Although an appropriate amount of ultraviolet rays can enhance human immunity by killing viruses and bacteria, excessive amounts can endanger human health. Research shows that a 1% reduction in ozone may increase the prevalence of skin cancer in Caucasians by about 3% due to the increased UV-B (Climate Warming and Human Health[EB/OL]). Third, Climate warming can cause ancient viruses frozen in permafrost or glaciers to overflow (Scientists warn: Warming climate may cause Arctic virus spillover risk[EB/OL]). The impact of climate warming on animals and plants cannot be ignored (Xiuxiu et al., 2017). Temperature rise can alter the yield and proportion of litter components in evergreen broad-leaved forests, as well as change the rhythm of litter fall. Rising sea temperatures can cause coral bleaching and inhibit coral self-repair (Xiaojian et al., 2023). If the emission of greenhouse gases is not controlled, a large number of coral reefs will be devastated by the end of the 21st century (Yanda and Liang, 2021).

It is necessary for China to respond to the national call and steadily achieve the dual carbon targets. First of all, as a major carbon emitter globally, China faces a severe challenge in reducing its carbon emissions. In 2016, the total carbon emissions of China amounted to 10 billion tons, representing approximately 30% of the world’s carbon emissions. This figure exceeds the combined carbon emissions of Europe and the United States, making China the largest carbon emitter worldwide, with an annual growth rate of 6% to 9% (Yu, 2022). In 2019, China’s CO₂ emissions accounted for 28% of global carbon emissions, reaching 10.5 billion metric tons. To further define greenhouse gases, China released the “Second Biennial Update Report on Climate Change of the People’s Republic of China” in July of the same year (Lu, 2022). However, China is still undergoing industrialization and urbanization, resulting in a high energy intensity in its economic structure, with fossil energy accounting for over 80%. This makes China’s energy transformation task even more challenging compared to developed countries in Europe and the United States, where the service industry contributes to approximately 80% of GDP (Min et al., 2023). Second, China must fulfill its obligations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and demonstrate its responsibility as a major country. The Copenhagen Conference, the Cancun Conference, and the South Africa Conference were held in 2009, 2010, and 2011 respectively, in response to climate change (Yu, 2022). Additionally, the Paris World Climate Conference and the United Nations Climate Change Conference are scheduled for 2015, 2019, and 2021 respectively, which highlights the urgency and necessity of energy conservation and emission reduction. Thirty-three countries, including Russia, Germany, and France, had already reached their carbon dioxide peaks in 2000. Eight countries, including Sweden and Iceland, are expected to achieve their carbon neutrality goals by 2050. In 2020, President Xi Jinping announced at the general debate of the 75th session of the United Nations General Assembly that China will work to achieve its peak carbon dioxide emissions by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2060 (Speech by Xi Jinping at the General Debate of the 75th Session of the United Nations General Assembly (full text)[EB/OL]). Finally, the proposal of China’s dual carbon targets has brought new vitality to global climate governance and presents an opportunity for China to firmly establish its position in the field. The right to speak in global climate governance has become a focal point for sovereign states worldwide, and China must construct a governance framework with Chinese characteristics to take a more proactive role in climate negotiations.

To ensure that the research is ongoing, we focus on the most recent data available as of 2017 via statistical yearbooks, statistical bulletins, etc., including the urban and rural population, per capita disposable income of urban and rural residents, the level of urbanization development, etc., covered in this article index. At the same time, we also pay attention to the policies on energy saving and pollution reduction issued by the Chinese government as well as the specific actions announced by local governments, because some government-mandated policies could somewhat affect the findings of our research. This is consistent with the research results of Zhao Kuokuo et al. They showed that “population is still a significant factor affecting Shandong Province’s carbon emissions” and discovered “the ability to change regional development to a low-carbon model through actions including slowing the urbanization process, expediting industrial structure transformation, and energy adjustment” (Kuokuo, 2022).

Based on the above understanding, in view of the different characteristics of the consumption carbon emission of urban and rural residents in Shandong Province, we put forward different emission reduction strategies for the consumption of urban and rural residents.

The emission reduction strategies for urban residents to consume carbon emissions. First, changes in resident status will increase urban carbon emissions. Shandong Province has a large population of urban residents, and its per capita carbon emission is higher than that of rural residents. As China’s urbanization continues to accelerate, more and more rural residents will become urban residents. The carbon emission of urban residents will increase due to changes in resident status. After rural residents become urban residents, the carbon emissions generated by the consumption of urban residents in Shandong Province will also increase accordingly. Second, for Shandong Province, the carbon emission of urban residents’ consumption is the focus of emission reduction. The carbon emission of urban residents’ living consumption in Shandong Province is mainly due to the implicit carbon emission generated by the consumption of non-energy products and services. However, the main sources of these products and services are three major industries, of which industry accounts for the larger part. Third, Based on this, we put forward corresponding policy suggestions. ① Adjusting the industrial and energy structure of Shandong Province and improving energy utilization can reduce emissions to a certain extent. For example, focus on the development of informatization and drive industry through information. While ensuring economic benefits, look for development paths with less environmental pollution and low resource consumption. The ultimate goal is to promote the development and transformation of the economic growth mode in the province. ② Vigorously publicize and guide healthy consumption patterns of residents. For example, optimize the urban bus network and expand the coverage of public transport. The government can attract investment and cooperate with shared bicycle companies to increase the distribution points and overall number of shared bicycles, and try its best to solve the problem of the last mile of residents’ lives.

Finally, we summarize the key points for controlling urban carbon emissions. That is:

The emission reduction strategies for rural residents to consume carbon emissions. First of all, the carbon emission of rural residents in Shandong Province is mainly caused by direct energy consumption, especially coal and gasoline consumption. The main uses of coal and gasoline are heating, cooking and machine work. On the one hand, for the rural areas of Shandong Province, carbon emission reduction in rural areas should focus on adjusting the energy consumption structure of residents. For example, advocate and encourage rural residents to use low-carbon, environmentally friendly and efficient electricity and liquefied petroleum gas instead of coal for living and cooking. At the same time, purchase discounts can be implemented for the above-mentioned energy within a reasonable range to increase the attractiveness of consumption. Relevant supporting policies and preferential policies can also be introduced to promote the popularization of rural biogas. Central heating, on the other hand, is more efficient than coal heating in individual homes. However, in the actual rural environment in China, different households are far apart, living in scattered places, and the infrastructure in rural areas is not as good as that in urban areas. Therefore, it is also possible to increase scientific and technological investment and support and develop heating technologies that are in line with rural conditions. Finally, new energy technologies can be widely used in rural areas. Part of the agricultural machinery can be optimized to realize the source of gasoline-electric hybrid power. The main source of electric energy is solar energy. When the sunlight is not enough to support the operation of agricultural machinery, oil can be used as supplementary power.

Finally, we summarize the key points for controlling rural carbon emissions. That is:

The primary objective of this study is to examine the carbon emission associated with the living consumption patterns of urban and rural residents in Shandong Province during 2017, utilizing the input-output methodology.

Urban residents generate a total carbon emission of approximately 70.2921 million tons, which is three times higher than that of rural residents at 23.7846 million tons. The carbon emission in Shandong Province is mainly attributed to embodied carbon emission. The population, level of urbanization, and income of inhabitants in Shandong Province in 2017 all had a significant impact on both urban and rural residents’ carbon emissions. First, population. In 2017, there were 6,099 urban residents and 3,934 rural residents in Shandong. The urban population was 2,165 more than the rural population. The population bases of urban and rural areas are very dissimilar, which causes significant variations in carbon emissions. Second, level of urbanization. The level of urbanization in Shandong province continued to advance in 2017, with the permanent population’s urbanization rate rising to 60.58% from the end of 2016 by 1.56 percentage points. The transition from rural to urban living has resulted in a rise in urban population, which ultimately affects the measurement of carbon emissions. Third, income of inhabitants. Shandong Province’s urban people had a per capita disposable income of 36,789 yuan in 2017, while rural residents had a per capita disposable income of 15,118 yuan. Because urban residents have a strong purchasing power than rural residents due to having a per capita disposable income that is 21,671 yuan more, urban residents will generate more carbon emissions than rural residents. For both rural residents and urban residents, an increase in income level will lead to an increase in consumption carbon footprint.

The carbon emission of both urban and rural residents is primarily attributed to their embodied carbon emission. In examining the composition of the implied carbon emission of residents’ consumption in Shandong Province, urban residents’ carbon emission is concentrated in three areas, namely, food, culture, education, entertainment, transportation, and communication, accounting for 21.45%, 20.88%, and 15.10%, respectively. Conversely, rural residents’ carbon emission is concentrated in four areas, including clothing, food, culture, education, entertainment, transportation, and communication, accounting for 29.01%, 17.45%, 15.43%, and 13.36%, respectively. Food consumption is the primary consumption category for urban residents.

Finally, we summarize the conclusions. That is:

This investigation, however, is not exempt from limitations. Firstly, the scope of this study is confined to the carbon emission data of Shandong Province. The constraints of funding and manpower along with the cultural and behavioral disparities in certain regions can potentially impose certain limitations on the dissertation. To address this, it is recommended that comparative research be carried out by collecting data from other provinces based on this study. Secondly, the underlying reasons responsible for the variations observed in embodied carbon emissions warrant further investigation. For instance, the distinctions between several sub-categories of urban and rural residents within the same category could be evaluated in the analysis of implied carbon emissions. The follow-up research can delve into more detailed exploration from diverse perspectives. Lastly, the family size of residents, population density, and age composition in Shandong Province can also influence the carbon emission of inhabitants, which is not explored in this article. Further research can be conducted to examine the impact of residents’ carbon emissions by incorporating relevant data, thereby enriching the research findings in this field. Third, while this paper has derived research outcomes, further investigation is required to provide support, thereby enhancing the reliability and interpretability of the results. Possible directions for future research include expanding the sample size, collecting additional data, and employing alternative analytical methods to validate and deepen the findings.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary files, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

QW: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. RY: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. YZ: Resources, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. YLY: Resources, Validation, Writing – review & editing. AH: Writing – review & editing. YSY: Writing – review & editing. YL: Writing – review & editing.