Items were listed in Spanish and/or Mexicatl. Before the analysis, all items were homogenised in their written nomenclature to avoid synonyms. Male, female, and young animals of a given species were considered as one item (i.e., rooster, hen and chicken; male and female turkey). However, we maintained the distinction between creole turkey and farm turkey, butterfly and their immature stages, and between frog and tadpole. All free lists’ analyses were performed using R 3.6.3 R software (2020) and R studio (2021).

We calculated the frequency of mention of each item, its average order of mention, and the Smith salience index, calculated as follows: S=(ΣL-Rj+1L)N; where “L” is the length of the list, “Rj” is the rank of item j in the list, and “N” is the number of lists (Smith and Borgatti, 1997) in accordance with da Silva et al. (2019). An item was considered salient if its Smith salience index value was above the average value for the group and if the probability that the value turned out by chance was less than 5% (p < 0.05). To calculate this probability per group, lists from 1,000 random populations with the same number of items and informants as the group were simulated using the Monte Carlo method (da Silva et al., 2019). To perform the analysis, we grouped the lists following age and provenance of people. At the first level, we grouped the students’ overall lists (n = 356). Then, we grouped students’ lists in eight sets according to their community of origin and school grade (elementary, 8–12 years old; secondary, 12–15 years old; and high school, 15–17 years old) to register the matches of the salient items among these eight sets. Free lists from adults were analysed by overall grouping (n = 16) on the first level and as two sets (TC and Sierra, 8 free lists each) on the second level.

We compared the total inventory of wild fauna items among age groups (adults, high school, secondary school, and elementary school students) and regions (Sierra, TC, municipal head) according to the presence/absence of data with an analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) using Jaccard distances (“anosim” function, package vegan, Rsoftware) (Oksanen et al., 2020). In a similar way, we compared the inventory of wild fauna salient items among age groups (adults vs. secondary school).

We built contingency tables with the counts of the listed items (students and adults separately), categorising variables according to the salience (salient or not salient), use (yes or not), and whether they cause damage (yes or not). We tested the independence between these variables with the Fisher’s exact test (fisher.test function, R software).

Audios and notes were transcribed, and the text was codified (Strauss and Corbin, 1998; Maxwell, 2013) by using the software ATLAS.ti 8 (2021). Codes were grouped into categories (Maxwell, 2013; Table 1) and organised into a typology and a general scheme of fauna use and management.

An inventory of 108 animal items was registered in 356 lists. Wild mammals represented 26.78% of the items followed by arthropods at 24.11%, birds at 19.96%, reptiles at 8.93%, amphibia at 3.57%, snail, and fish (one item each). All domestic animals (mammals and birds) represented the 15.75% In addition, this technique allowed the registry of two items that we did not expect within the animal cultural domain, the “chane” and the “duende” (two of several spiritual beings recognised by people as present in forests, sometimes tricky, specially to children), although its frequency was low (n = 2 each). The 24 items that were determined as salient included 11 domestic and 13 wild animals (eight mammals, two reptiles, two birds, and one butterfly). Although not salient, the items, namely, frog, racoon, and bee, also had Smith values above the mean (Table 2). Table 3 shows a summary of the lists by school groups.

A total of 48 wild items were listed by adults. Mammals represented the seven most salient items (squirrel, deer, rabbit, white-nosed coati, racoon, opossum, and armadillo) and 45.8% of the listed items. Reptiles and birds represented 20.83% in each of the listed items and arthropods the 10.41%. Although not salient, the items snake, peccary, paca, skunk, and dove had Smith index values above the mean (Table 4 and Supplementary Additional File 2).

We did not find significant differences in the general wild animal inventory between age groups (adults vs. high school vs. secondary school vs. elementary school R = 0.1364, p = 0.171) or provenance (Sierra vs. Tierra Caliente vs. Municipal seat R = 0.1798, p = 0.133) for wild animal salient items between age groups (adults vs. secondary school R = 0.75, p = 0.333).

We rejected the independent null hypothesis between a higher salience and use reports for both students and adults (respectively, p-value < 0.05; p-value = 0.01). We also rejected the independent null hypothesis between a higher salience and damage reports for students (p-value < 0.05), but not for adults. A high percentage of the listed animals was not reported to have any use or did not cause any damage (Table 5).

Most birds and mammals were reported to feed on sources related to anthropogenic activities such as crops, secondary vegetation, or domestic animals. However, trees identified as sources of food for birds and mammals in the lowlands of TC were black “zapotl” [Diospyros nigra (JF Gmel.) Perrier], “amatl” (Ficus sp.), and “yoloxochitl” (Magnolia sp.), while in the highlands, “xometl” (Sambucus mexicana C. Presl ex DC), pinecones (Pinus spp.), and acorns (Quercus spp.) were mentioned. White tailed deer was reported to feed on “apashmama” (Lopezia racemosa Cav.) and “teterisia” (Monnina xalapensis Kunth) leaves, butterflies, bees, stingless bees, hummingbirds, and bats were recognised as flower visitors that feed on nectar and pollen. On the other hand, bats were also identified as blood suckers, frugivorous, and insectivorous. Dogs and cats were reported to feed mainly on wild fauna and on human leftovers (Supplementary Additional File 3).

“Hoja santa” or “nextokuili” (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae) (D27 TC) is an animal that becomes the plant “tlanekpakilitl,” Piper auritum Kunth, after it burrows underground (D20 TC, D21 TC, D23, TC). The similarity of the inflorescence of the plant to a white worm is interpreted by participants as a vestige of this transformation (D23 TC).

“Kuetla” is the immature stage of the butterfly Arsenura armida Cramer (Figure 2). Three instars were recognised. In the first one, caterpillars have “horns” and are small and dark. As they grow, they lose their horns and become fatty. When they are ready to be eaten, they are fatty, with green, orange, and dark stripes. They can be found in groups of over a hundred in the higher section of a single trunk of a Heliocarpus appendiculatus Turcz tree. They lay in the trunk during the day, but feed on leaves at night. People said that when kuetlas fall from trees, they are eaten by snakes. Therefore, people must be aware and mindful when approaching a Heliocarpus tree to collect “kuetla.” Some women expressed their phobia towards these larvae. They are found in groups, which are called “little herds” or “setlamoxotzintli” in Mexicatl (Nahuatl) (D23 TC). Kuetlas availability occurs mainly in July but also on October.

A life cycle involving Hepialidae, Saturniidae, Cicacidae, and Melolonthidae was proposed in TC, where these insect groups co-occur. The “chajkchama,” “chajchamokuili,” or true “poxokuili” larvae (immature Hepialidae) live inside the “chajkchamakowitl” tree (Lippia myriocephala Schltdl. And Cham.) for 2 or 3 months. Since woodpeckers predate them, they are usually only found in the lower sections of trees (D43 TC). Then, the “chajkchama” enters a stage in which “it loses its hands” (corresponding to the pupa, called “mosawa”), and afterwards becomes a butterfly (Figure 2). Then, the butterfly will only live for around a month and lays its eggs in a different tree (H. appendiculatus). These eggs become the poxokuili or “kuetla” (immature stages of A. armida). Afterwards, these kuetla fall down, burrow in the soil, and become a cicadas (Cicacidae) “xikilixi,” which is seen aboveground for 3 or 4 months during the warm season. Some people have heard that this cycle further continues—that Cicacidae become “nextokuili” (Melolonthidae) and Piper auritum. It is because of such cycles of metamorphosis linking one insect to another that Lippia myriocephala’s bark and Piper auritum leaves and stems have nice, beautiful, and similar smells (D23 TC, D43 TC).

Snakes (kuwatl). In the Sierra region the main kind of snakes recognised by people were the rattlesnakes “tehuankuwatl” (Crotalus spp.), the aquatic snakes “ahuatl” (Thamnophis sp.), and the horned vipers “akaskuwatl” (Ophryacus spp.). According to locals, rattlesnakes are abundant and fearful. They run away or hide inside the earth in the presence of people. Therefore, snake bites are rare events. Snakes are often seen near fallen trees (D14 S). Meanwhile, aquatic snakes are perceived to be abundant in rivers and springs, mainly during April and May (D11 S, D12 S). Their abundance in the Sierra is the reason why the village “Ahuatla” has its name (D8 S) (although “ahuatl” can also have other meanings such as “thorn” or “oak”). They are also fearful and do not bite. According to participants, they “just see you and jump into the water” (D12 S). In contrast, the horned pit vipers are considered to be fearless and wait for people or even approach closer instead of running away (D8 S, D12 S). However, encounters with this snake may have a symbolic value (D13 S). A man is said to have killed one, and to his surprise, inside the snake were nine smaller ones – its offspring. This meant that this kind of snake does not lay eggs, as locals have thought before “it is like a rabbit, not like a bird” (D8 S).

Because the offspring were different sizes, he thought that some of them were more mature than others and, therefore, were meant to born at different times (D8 S). The man wondered how many at a time and how often. Coral snakes, called “eskuwatl,” were also reported in the Sierra, but were more often associated to TC (D11 S), where there is a much higher abundance and variety of snakes are recognised. However, species richness in the Sierra was recognised to be underestimated as a participant said, “there are more snakes, but we do not know how to identify them because we do not know them” (D16 S). Lizards “kuwishi” (Abronia spp.) are believed to be “the mother of the rattlesnake” which may explain why they are considered as poisonous and even feared (D13 S).

Small mammals like squirrels, rabbits, and opossums are commonly seen near villages or in crop fields. In the Sierra, two kinds of squirrels are recognised by people: one arboreal which has red hair “chichilmoto” (Sciurus aureogaster F.Cuvier) and one of the same sizes, but grey, that inhabits within holes in the rocks and is called “tlalmoto.” In TC, a third type, called “tepaxi” or “tepaxitsi,” which is smaller and feeds on nuts was recognised. Rabbits are commonly seen in the field (D10 S, D8 S). They are born within a hole in the ground, during which the female removes its hair and places them inside the hole to shelter her cubs. If she comes out, she covers the hole with ground to avoid predation by weasel (Mustela frenata Lichtenstein) (D8 S).

Opossums are active at night (D10 S) and the data gathered mainly came from people that had direct experiences killing these animals.

“Once we killed one, and after the sunrise its cubs were around the body, they were nine, without hair, the size of a new-born kitty […] it carries them on its bag” (D11 S).

“my husband once found one of them with their cubs, he says it has a little hole in its belly, but it is not actually a hole, it is a little bag and there is where babies are. Why don’t these babies fall? Well, I don’t know, he says, they are just stuck in there” (D12:19 S).

Other animals are more frequently seen in forests and are seasonally associated to crop fields, such as racoons and skunks (D8 S, D23 TC). The racoon is reported to be associated with places full of trees (D 11 S) which it climbs (D 23 TC) and, similarly, to Nasua narica L. and Pecari tacaju L., it can be seen either alone (solitaries are called “seltwa”) or in groups (called “mieke” or “miektli”) (D23 TC). Also, it is recognised to store its food as a participant said, “My husband’s uncle once told him that they went to find firewood and tried to pull a dry stick from a tree, and when they were pulling it, a lot of maize fell down, because inside, they store their food” (D18:66 S). Two kinds of skunks are recognised: the cadena skunk (bigger, with one big with spot in the back; Mephitis macroura Lichtenstein) and the caparote skunk (smaller, black with small white spots in the body; Spilogale putorius L.). They are nocturnal (D23 TC) and their presence is desirable in Sierra cornfields since they feed on Melolonthidae larvae that plague maize roots (D8 S).

Armadillo is easily recognised by its shield as a participant mentioned, “if you touch it, it gets inside and rolls” (D11 S), and because it leaves a trace of little holes in the soil (D11 S, D23 TC). It lives under the soil or rocks, and once it has burrowed into the soil, it is not possible to take it out even by pulling the tail (D12 S). They have been seen with 3 cubs (D23 TC).

Deer is the biggest mammal recognised as common in the area. Based on the shape and size of their antlers, different kinds of white tailed deers (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmerman) are recognised by people in the Sierra. The “chilliwa” has antlers shaped like a basket in accordance to its namesake, “chiwi,” means basket. It is smaller than the “tlegalatzi,” which is named after their resemblance to the shape of a wooden pole. There is also the “xokotewitswa,” which is a big deer, but with small antlers that end in a small sphere that resemble a “tejocote” (Crataegus mexicana DC) fruit (D8 S). However, the white tailed deers that have been recently seen near villages in the Sierra region have small antlers (D11). The size of the antlers is also the criterion used by some people, mainly the young, to differentiate males (bigger antlers) from females (D26 TC). “Temotzi” (M. temama) is distinguished as a small and reddish deer, which only lives in TC (D8 S, D22 TC). The loss of the antlers of the deer is recognised. However, there is no consensus on how often it happens. One man of the Sierra argued that “People say that the antlers fall down. They say every year, but I don’t think so (…) they look really sturdy (…) they are never seen on the ground, where these fall, then? (…) Antlers fall, but maybe after 10 years” (D7:16 S). In contrast, a hunter in TC stated that all deers throw away their antlers every year on San Andrés Day (D43:3 TC), celebrated on November 30. The behaviour of brushing up the antlers against trees has been observed in November (D7 S), the mating around mid-November, and young deer, aged about 1 month, whose skin is covered with white spots are seen around June. Therefore, pregnancy is calculated to last about 6 months (D7 S). Deers were differentiated from other mammals because they lack vessel “xixiwa” (D8). They are known to make their own paths or use human paths to move across vegetation (D8 S, D20 TC).

Paca (Cuniculus paca L.) is nocturnal, and although it is not often seen by most people, its feeding sites are identified in TC because it leaves the peel of the fruits, such as lime or avocado. It has two frontal teeth, and cubs are born (1 or 2) between May and June. It burrows in the rocks and caves. While most people call it just “tepezcuintle,” one man distinguished two kinds. The bigger has big cheeks and is called “tekomawa,” while the smaller “kowtetekiwsi” has no cheeks (D23 TC).

Mammals that are not often seen are felids, namely, porcupine and kinkajou. Small felids identified in pictures as Leopardus wiedii Schinz are recognised as small beasts called “tekuantsin” which are common in TC, especially near the Pinus spp. forests where there are a lot of squirrels. However, it is not easy to find them because they avoid humans. Bigger felids, such as Leopardus pardalis L., are recognised as big beasts called “wey tekuani.” They are hunter animals but are locally scarce (D23 TC). Although the kinkajou is well recognised by its call, even mimicked by children (Supplementary Additional File 4), it is often identified in pictures as a monkey. Porcupines are recognised to spend all their life just lying on top of trees in TC, hypnotising small animals as mentioned by a participant, “It has a kind of magnet for attracting them, who knows how it does for putting these animals to sleep.” Its reproduction data are unknown (D23 TC).

Definition: Vertebrates’ extraction in a planned or opportunistic way using weapons, traps or, dogs. Category: Supply and extractive prevention. Sources: 16 adult informants: D7 S, D8 S, D9 S, D10 S, D11 S, D12 S, D13 S, D16 S, D18 S, D19 TC, D20 TC, D21 TC, D23 TC, D24 TC, D25 TC, D26 TC; school groups: D41, D42, field diary (testimonies) D43. Examples for supply: Fire guns, sticks or machetes are used to obtain medium sized mammals such as armadillo (D12 S, D16 S). Small birds are usually killed with slingshots (D16 S) but big sized birds that walk such as quails used to be obtained with a snare (D8 S) and more recently, with rifles (D20 TC). Gophers, rabbits and white-nosed coatis can be also obtained through traps. Dogs are involved in the hunt of deer, rabbit, armadillo and racoon but not in the hunting of paca or skunk. Examples for extractive prevention: Snakes (D12 S) and kuwishi (Abronia sp.) because they are considered poisonous. Tekolotl and xiastli (owls) because they are considered bad or witches. To prevent damage to domestic animals, people kill tlakua (opossum) which is considered “a bad animal, although its tail is good” (D11 S), or the coyote which is considered by most people to be extirpated. In the case of tlalmoto (squirrel), burrows are set in fire. Extraction of animals is also mediated through cats for rodent control, preventing predation on stored maize seeds. Interactions with other categories: Hunting strategies vary according to the animal natural history. For example, in TC, it is known that temazate deer feeds on the leaves of chili “chiltepetl” and follows paths in vegetation. Therefore, the hunter can wait for him. Other animals, such as white nosed coati or peccary, are waited in the milpas and hunted when they come to feed, especially in the maize season around October. Differently, the paca must be waited at night close to its feeding place, and a site to spy is built high in the trees, so the hunter can avoid been detected. Snakes are captured manually and kept alive until they are used to prepare an antivenom with sugarcane alcohol. However, they may be killed soon.

Definition: To control the feeding and mobility of an animal ex situ. Category: Supply. Sources: 11 adult informants: D5 S, D7 S, D8 S, D11 S, D12 S, D14 S, D16 S, D20 TC, D23 TC, D25 TC, D27 TC; school groups: D41, D42; field diary: D43. Examples: The animals kept in captivity for at least a year were rabbits (direct observation D43) and squirrels. Other animals which are brought to homes and die soon include agouti (Dasyprocta sp.), peccary and temazate deer (M. temama). Interviewed people identified the feeding as the main factor to captivity success. Interactions with other categories: The animal will die unless its diet is well known, or if it accepts a diet based on maize without getting ill, finding by itself part of its own food. In the case of peccary, their sharp teeth were the reason of deciding not continuing with captivity. Reproduction in captivity of wild fauna was not documented.

Definition: Taking small animals through manual collecting or by tools, sometimes manipulating biotic elements such as host plants. Category: Supply. Sources: 8 adult informants: D12 S, D15 S, D20 TC, D21 TC, D22 TC, D25 TC, D26 TC, D27 TC; school groups: D41; field diary: D43. Examples: Gathering was documented for immature stages of lepidoptera (direct observation D43). In TC and in Sierra, people tolerate host trees (D27 TC) of immature stages of Hepialidae (Lippia myriocephala in TC or Fraxinus sp. in Sierra) to keep availability of these animals, which are extracted, mainly by children, using water and a spine. In TC, the immature stages of A. armida, called “kuetlas,” are collected from jonote (H. appendiculatus) trees by adults, mainly men, who use a bamboo stick from ground level, climb, or even log the tree to take the “kuetlas” more easily. Some people collect them from trees growing in secondary vegetation and then take them to their homes to keep them in a selected H. appendiculatus tree until they are ready to be eaten. This relocation requires an active surveillance of the animals to assure that they are eating well, they are safe from predators, and no other people is removing them. Stingless bee honeycombs are also collected. This implies the use of smoke or soapy water to drive bees away (D41). Interactions with other categories: see Agreements.

Definition: People’s choices on the kinds and sources of food offered to an animal, including choices on grazing land. Category: Supply. Sources: 14 adult informants: D8 S, D10 S, D11 S, D12 S, D14 S, D15 S, D18 S, D19 TC, D20 TC, D21 TC, D22 TC, D24 TC, D25 TC, D27 TC; school groups: D41. Examples: Almost all domestic animals are fed on maize grain or tortillas. However, turkeys feed on nixtamal (maize cooked in limewater) and as juveniles, the nixtamal should be enriched with quelites (Cucurbita ficifolia Bouché or “chilacayota” leaves, among others) (D10 S, D11 S, D18 S). Women sing to the juvenile turkeys (direct observation D43, audio examples available in Supplementary Additional File 4) and feed them in their mouth to make them easier to eat. In contrast, chickens that come from farms must be fed with commercial food until they get used to maize. Dogs and cats hunt small wild animals by themselves. Dogs are also fed with leftovers, duck eggs, or leftovers of killed animals as gophers. People maintain lambs, goats, horses, and donkeys locked at night and take them to graze the whole day. Interactions with other categories: A person who owns land takes his/her animals to graze there, but others must have personal agreements with the landowners, or take the animals to graze to the mount.

Definition: Animal illnesses recognised by people and their treatments. Category: Supply. Sources: 12 adult informants: D10 S, D11 S, D12 S, D14 S, D15 S, D16 S, D18 S, D21 TC, D22 TC, D24 TC, D25 TC, D26 TC; school groups: D41, D42; field diary D43. Examples: When they become ill, chickens and turkeys are fed with tomatoes or aloe (direct observation D43) and their underwing is smeared with tomato or sugarcane alcohol. To treat snake bites, horses are smeared with snake sugarcane alcohol and, in cases of birth complications, people provide an infusion of opossum tail. Prevention practices include vaccines and keeping ducks in homes to protect poultry and turkeys from getting ill. People place red threads to juvenile turkeys, lambs, and goats (direct observation D43) to avoid the “envy” (damage or illness caused by someone’s negative emotions). The interest in finding the way to keep the domestic animals healthy is reflected in the experimental incorporation of information coming from different sources, including products announced in TV such as human antihistaminic pills, but also in the will of the people of participating in this research and interchange information with others about how to take care of their animals (D11 S).

Definition: People choices on sexual partners for animals, artificial selection criteria and care to ensure offspring survival. Category: Supply. Sources: 7 adult informants: D6 S, D10 S, D11 S, D12 S, D13 S, D14 S, D15 S; school groups: D41, D42. Examples: In turkeys, artificial selection does not seem to be rigorous. Females are cross breed with the male that is available, either because a friend lent it or because the female escaped to find a male by herself. If there were several available males, people would let the female choose, or would allow the fastest male to fertilise her. Some people invest great effort to grow the new-born turkeys. For example, by putting them inside a box with electric bulbs to maintain the heat, while others just cover them at night with a cloth, so the strong ones will survive (D10 S). In the case of hens, besides the meat, an element of selection are eggs. Women select from a hen the eggs of their preference (white, red, or yellow) and give them to another hen to hatch them, so they maintain a variety that will be for direct consumption or to sell. Interaction with other categories: see Agreements.

Definition: Protection of animals for their wellbeing, from escape, predation by wild fauna or exclusion from crops. Category: Supply and damage prevention. Sources: 8 adult informants: D10 S, D11 S, D13 S, D14 S, D16 S, D18 S, D19 TC, D21 TC; school groups: D41; field diary D43. Examples for supply: Women must be aware of turkeys (even chase them to bring them back) since they often escape. If the eggs of the hens locked inside the yard are fragile, sand is introduced so the hens can eat the small stones (D 41). The lambs must be sheared so they can be comfortable in the heat season even though their wool is not used or sold anymore. Their tails are cut when they are cubs, so they will grow more and will not get dirty. In the case of the few bulls in the localities, it must be avoided to take them to the mount because their legs broke easily and must be watched to avoid robbery from outsiders (D42). Examples for damage prevention: Often, locking the domestic animals within a cage or yard is enough to avoid predation by wild fauna, however, there is a trade-off between having them locked and their health since they “become sad” (meaning they get weak or ill). Consequently, they are maintained for great part of the day as free rangers. People try to keep the yard close to their homes since reducing this distance also reduces losses by predation. On the other hand, cages are also useful to avoid the chickens and turkeys to take out the plants that have been recently sown.

Definition: Scaring animals with noise or visual clues. Category: Damage prevention. Sources: 9 adult informants: D8 S, D11 S, D12 S, D13 S, D18 S, D20 TC, D22 TC, D25 TC, D27 TC; school groups: D41, D42. Examples: To avoid predation, the dog is locked within the cage or yard together with the chickens and turkeys. Since electric light arrived at the region ca. 15 years ago, the events of hematophagous bats feeding on domestic animals have decreased, therefore people place electric bulbs in the yards. This practice also dissuades the “k’zoma” (Mustela frenata) to get close. If the hens or turkeys cry, a prey bird must be close, so people scare the juvenile chickens with noises, so they hide to protect themselves. In TC, leaves of malango or “awewejcho” (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) are put inside the gopher’s burrows to cause irritation, so they will go away. To drive away the animals from crop fields, visual signs are used, especially scarecrows, constructed with cloths, or pieces of plastic.

Definition: Direct protection of crops from animal predation with local technology. Category: Damage prevention. Sources: 3 adult informants; D13 S, D20 TC, D26 TC; school groups: D41; field diary D43. Examples: Put ash or lamb excreta around plants to drive away the gopher (D41). Corn seeds are protected from mammal seed predation, with ash and Pinus sp. resin (direct observation D43). This preparation implies the extraction of Pinus sp. chips and two Agave americana L. leaves, as well as the use of small dry branches enough to maintain a small fire for 1 h (Figure 6). Interaction with other categories: This practice is much less common than it was thirty years ago, and in words of one woman “we do not even know why it has been abandoned” (D43). Knowledge about how to perform this technique is transmitted from generation to generation as part of the wisdom inherited from the ancestors.

Definition: Commercial products that cause the death of animals and are applied in their food. Category: Extractive prevention. Sources: 3 adult informants: D12 S, D16 S, D25 TC; school groups: D41, D42. Examples: In the case of “mapachi” (racoon), poison is placed directly in corn; for the squirrel, it is placed in an avocado that is introduced in its burrow; for the gopher, the poison is mixed with corn dough and small balls of this mixture is placed in the seeding fields. Poisons are sold in the community, but their provenance is unknown.

Definition: People assume the damage because there is nothing that can be done. Category: Assume the loss. Sources: 3 adult informants; D8 S, D12 S, D13 S. Examples: This is the case of birds that eat the crops, after learning that the drive away strategies are not a threat. It is also the case of encounters with snakes (D13 S).

Definition: Stop performing an economic activity because of the damages caused by fauna. Category: Assume the loss. Sources: One adult informant: D11 S. Examples: This was the case in which Bassariscus sp. fed on the eggs that were to be sold at a grocery store, so the owner gave up after several tries and stopped to sell the eggs because she had another source of income.

Definition: Negotiations among people intended to prevent or reduce problems. Category: Human conflict prevention, conservation. Sources: 6 adult informants: D5 S, D8 S, D9 S, D13 S, D18 S, D21 TC, D25 TC; school groups: D41, D42; field diary testimonies and direct observation D43. Examples and interactions with other categories: These are mainly related to human conflicts involved in hunting, gathering, grazing and domestic animal reproduction. For conservation, agreements can involve land ordering and closure for preservation in the form of a legend, such as the recognition of the Tzintzintepetl Hill as a kind of fauna source, a place of great abundance of animals in which it is prohibited to hunt, otherwise the hunter would attract bad luck (D5 S, D41). Outside this area, agreements for regulating the access to resources in communal lands, i.e., any agreement of closure (calendar, age, sex) towards deer or other animals, were not registered. However, according to the customs, people do not go hunting in communities where they do not belong, and they do not accept hunters from other communities. Strong penalisation is applied to whom violate the rule (D8 S, D9 S).

There seems to be no regulation of the extraction of edible Lepidoptera in communal lands. However, there are personal agreements with private landowners to extract them (D21 TC, D25 TC). We did not register restrictions to grazing animals in communal lands, but action is taken to keep them from causing damage (D18 S). For lambs, they make masks with plastic bottles, or maintain them tied. For horses, their owner asks permit from a landowner before tying the horse in his property (direct observation D43). If an animal causes damage, its owner must pay it.

In the case of animal reproduction, a personal agreement is taken to retribute the person who lent the male. In the case of turkeys, the retribution can be one new-born turkey; in the case of pigs, a symbolic economic retribution is well received (D13 S, D41, D42).

Definition: Regulations imposed from the outside, such as the federal, state, municipal, local or religious authorities. Category: Conservation. Sources: 5 adult informants: D5 S, D7 S, D9 S, D43 TC; school groups D41; field diary (testimonies) D43. Examples and interactions with other categories: According to people, a rule has been established by the municipal authority 12–15 years ago, forbidding deer hunting (D9 S), but deer hunting is practiced. Another recognised rule is the national army’s request to register the possession of fire guns of any kind (D5 S). To reduce potential misunderstandings with military authorities, some people registered their guns and follow their hunting activity as usual, but others were dissuaded to hunt or are discrete about it (D7 S, D43).

Hunters recognised the need to ask for permission to divine authorities, specifically to San Andrés, before going hunting to the mount (D43 TC). Also, to avoid the “mal aire” (the illness caused by a damaging wind or spirit, that penetrates into the body of a person or an animal), a hunter must pray and ask permit to the owners of the animals. They also need to be aware of the signs they send to inform him on whether it is possible to go hunting. In addition, the hunter should not bring any money, otherwise animals will not appear (D43 TC). However, extraction of small birds and mammals with a slingshot, performed mainly by children and with edible purposes, seems to have open access (D41).

Definition: Personal ways of feeling or thinking about a situation (related to management practices), including a rule or an agreement, and which may reflect a behaviour. Category: Conservation. Sources: 4 adult informants: D7 S, D10 S, D11 S, D23 TC; field diary (testimonies and direct observation) D43. Examples: We observed that adults of Hepialidae moths were identified, and people took care of them to assure the following year there would be enough “worms” (direct observation D43, July 2019). Several people had personal regards towards avoiding the unregulated logging and mistreating animals, they expect that with these actions the forest will remain alive, and the water cycles will remain functional (D10 S, D11 S). The respect to rules and agreements may be also a question of attitude (D7 S, D23 TC, D43). Something similar happens with the act of killing animals associated to bad luck like owls or foxes: some people fear that if they kill the animal, they will also die, while others consider this as a misguided belief (D7 S).