Front. Earth Sci. Frontiers in Earth Science Front. Earth Sci. 2296-6463 Frontiers Media S.A. 1616423 10.3389/feart.2025.1616423 Earth Science Original Research Petrogenesis and tectonic implications of intrusive rocks in the Jiangjunmu porphyry deposit, East Kunlun orogeny, NW China Junzhen et al. 10.3389/feart.2025.1616423 Junzhen Yu 1 2 Dexian Li 1 2 Yalin Gao 1 2 Bo Ma 1 2 Youye Zheng 3 4 5 Khan Junaid 3 * Tahir Asma 5 1 State Key Laboratory of Ni & Co Associated Minerals Resources Development and Comprehensive Utilization, Jinchang, Gansu, China 2 Jinchuan Ni & Co Research and Engineering Institute, Jinchang, Gansu, China 3 Faculty of Earth Resource, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China 4 State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resource, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China 5 Geological Survey Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China

Edited by: Daniel Kwayisi, University of Ghana, Ghana

Reviewed by: Patrick Asamoah Sakyi, University of Ghana, Ghana

Zayyanu Usman Magawata, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology Aliero, Nigeria

Minh Pham, Ho Chi Minh City University of Science, Vietnam

 *Correspondence: Junaid Khan, Junaidkhan5615@yahoo.com 03 10 2025 2025 13 1616423 22 04 2025 08 09 2025 Copyright © 2025 Junzhen, Dexian, Yalin, Bo, Youye, Khan and Tahir. 2025 Junzhen, Dexian, Yalin, Bo, Youye, Khan and Tahir

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The newly discovered Jiangjunmu Cu–Au deposits are hosted within granodiorite porphyry and K-feldspar granite of the East Kunlun metallogenic belt. Previous understanding of these deposits has been limited due to a lack of comprehensive isotopic data. To address this gap, we present new zircon U–Pb geochronology, whole-rock geochemistry, and Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf isotopic analyses of the Jiangjunmu intrusive rocks. Both intrusive rock samples exhibit nearly identical rare earth element patterns, suggesting they originated from the same source area. The K-feldspar granite (206Pb/238U age: 228 Ma) and the Jiangjunmu granodiorite porphyry intruded into the Jiangjunmu K-feldspar granite porphyry (206Pb/238U age: 234 Ma). They exhibit initial (87Sr/86Sr)ᵢ ratios of 0.70884–0.70944 and 0.70555–0.70913, εNd(t) values of −4.32 to −5.24 and −8.27 to −8.93, 207Pb/204Pb ratios of 15.615–15.677 and 15.664–15.682, and 208Pb/204Pb ratios of 38.443–38.544 and 38.526–38.650, respectively. The Jiangjunmu K-feldspar granite also has high Rb/Sr ratios (0.82), low MgO (0.66–1.19 wt%), Cr (6.6–13.6 ppm), Ni (4.4–6.4 ppm), and Co (55.9–97.2 ppm) contents, indicating an origin from a thickened lower continental crust (TLCC) magma source by partial melting (Sr/Y: 9.4–15.8; La/Yb: 25.6–35.5). Its lower Mg# values (36–39), relatively higher (87Sr/86Sr)ᵢ ratios, lower Sr concentrations (179.8–266.1 ppm), and εHf(t) values (−8.18 to −3.83) suggest that a more evolved upper continental crustal component (heterotypic sandstone) contributed to the formation of the K-feldspar granite during magmatic evolution. The presence of numerous mafic magmatic enclaves (MMEs) in the granodiorite porphyry suggests that the Cu (Au) contents of the Jiangjunmu deposit may have been derived from a mantle source. In association with the tectonic background and regional research, the Jiangjunmu granodiorite porphyry and K-feldspar granite (Th/Sm: 4.2–5.1; Th/Yb:11.5–14.8) formed in a post-collisional orogenic extensional setting after the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean.

 Jiangjunmu granodiorite porphyry Jiangjunmu K-feldspar granite East Kunlun metallogenic belt mafic magmatic enclaves thickened lower continental crust section-at-acceptance Petrology 1 Introduction

Porphyry deposits are the world’s most important source of Cu, Mo, and Au, contributing over two-thirds of global Cu production, one-fifth of Au production, and one-half of total molybdenum production (Sillitoe, 2010; Junaid et al., 2022). Porphyry deposits mainly form in compressional settings like subduction zones (e.g., Luzon Arc, Andes) or strike-slip systems (e.g., Himalayas) (Zengqian et al., 2003; Sillitoe, 2010; Midea et al., 2021). A total of 97% of the giant to large porphyry Cu (Mo-Au) deposits are generated in island arc or continental margin settings (Richards, 2003; Cooke et al., 2005), while 3% occur in continental rift and extensional intracontinental settings (Hou et al., 2004; Hou and Cook, 2009; Hou et al., 2011).

Significant genetic relationships are well-documented between porphyry Cu and Cu-Mo deposits and the petrogenesis of their associated granitic intrusions. For instance, granitic bodies are known to be involved in the generation of magmas that evolve into porphyritic granites, which are linked with important mineral deposits (Zeng et al., 2017). Recent studies have emphasized the role of magma mixing in influencing the geochemistry of granodioritic intrusions, suggesting a complex interplay of magmatic processes that produce distinct geochemical signatures associated with mineralization (Qi et al., 2020). However, many geochemical characteristics of such intrusions, particularly in lesser-studied regions, are inadequately documented, highlighting a significant research gap in understanding the full scope of their petrogenesis (Qi et al., 2020).

The Qinghai–Tibet Plateau is a key region for the evolution of the Tethys and an important metallogenic domain in China, containing many porphyries and epithermal Cu–Mo–Au–Pb–Zn deposits (Hou and Cook, 2009). Based on deposit assemblages and location, there are several major porphyry metallogenic belts in this region, from south to north: 1) the Gangdese Cu–Mo–Au–Pb–Zn metallogenic belt (GDMB) (Zheng et al., 2002; Hou et al., 2004; Hou et al., 2009); 2) the Yu Long porphyry copper metallogenic belt (YLPMB) (e.g., Hou et al., 2003); and 3) the East Kunlun Mo–Cu–Au–Zn–Fe metallogenic belt (EKMB) (Feng et al., 2010; Li and Sun, 2010; Liu et al., 2013). In recent years, an increasing number of porphyry deposits have been discovered in the EKMB, such as the Aikengdesite porphyry Mo (Cu) deposit, Xiadeboli Cu–Mo deposit, Wulanwuzhuer porphyry Cu deposit, Jiangjunmu porphyry Cu–Au deposit, and Re Shui porphyry Mo deposit (Feng et al., 2010; Li and Sun, 2010; Wang et al., 2013), which show great potential for mineralization. The Jiangjunmu porphyry Cu–Au deposit, discovered in 2016 in the eastern part of the EKMB, is distinctive from other porphyry deposits in the region, which are dominated by Cu–Mo or Mo. It is marked by the presence of numerous mafic magmatic enclaves (MMEs) hosted in ore-bearing granodiorite porphyry. Despite the significance of the host rocks in the Jiangjunmu porphyry Cu-Au deposits, only preliminary geochemical and geochronological studies have been conducted (Yu et al., 2020). A more comprehensive understanding has been hindered by the lack of data on adjacent rock petrogenesis, tectonic setting, and magma-mineralization relationships. This study presents zircon U–Pb dating, whole-rock geochemistry, and Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf isotopes of the Jiangjunmu intrusive rocks, combined with regional analysis, to constrain the tectonic setting, magma source, and diagenetic processes, advancing the understanding of Jiangjunmu deposit formation.

 2 Geological setting

The East Kunlun Orogenic Belt (EKOB) is a crucial part of the Central China Orogenic System (Chen et al., 2017). It is situated in the northern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Figure 1a) and lies within the Tethyan tectonic domain. The formation of the EKOB is intricately linked to the tectonic evolution of the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Tethys Oceans. The tectonic setting of the EKOB is characterized by a series of geological events, including oceanic subduction, continental collision, and post-collisional processes, which have shaped its current structure and composition (Wang et al., 2023). The EKOB is bounded to the south by the Bayan Har Terrane, to the north by the Qaidam Basin, to the east by the West Qinling Orogen, and is truncated to the west by the Altyn Tagh Fault (Figure 1b). The belt extends approximately 1,500 km in an E–W direction and ranges in width from 90 to 240 km. From north to south, the EKOB is subdivided into three primary tectonic zones: the North Kunlun Belt (NKB), bounded by the North Kunlun Fault (NKF); the Central Kunlun Belt (CKB), delimited by the Middle Kunlun Fault (MKF); and the South Kunlun Belt (SKB) (Xu et al., 2014; Li et al., 2017).

(a) The geological map showing the location of the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt (EKOB) in Central China Orogenic System (modified after Lin et al., 2025); (b) Tectonic map of the EKOB (Mo et al., 2007; Xiong, 2014); (c) Age histogram of the main ore-forming rock masses in the Triassic, EKOB (modified after Xiong, 2014); and (d) Geological map of the EKOB showing the Jiangjunmu copper-gold deposit (modified after Song et al., 2016).

Geological map showing the Kunlun belt with key features and zones labeled. Various rock types are indicated using distinct patterns and colors, including Triassic sandstone, Paleozoic granite, and metamorphic rocks. Fault lines and deposits like Jiangjunmu Cu-Au are marked. Inset map and histogram depict regional context and rock ages respectively. A legend explains symbols and colors.

The EKOB hosts widespread intrusive and minor volcanic rocks, forming a major magmatic belt enriched with polymetallic deposits (Mo et al., 2007). Magmatic activity in the region spans from the Proterozoic to the Cenozoic, recording the belt’s tectonic evolution (Figure 1d). Four major magmatic episodes can be distinguished: the Jinningian episode (1990–824 Ma), dominated by acidic intrusions (e.g., diorite, granodiorite, monzonite, monzogranite, quartz diorite, and minor cordierite granite) (Chen and Li, 2002); the Caledonian episode (515–412 Ma), characterized by intermediate to felsic intrusions, including granodiorite, monzogranite, quartz diorite, and K-feldspar granite (Bai et al., 2001; Liu et al., 2004; Lu et al., 2005); the Hercynian episode (408–394 Ma), characterized by the emplacement of large granitic batholiths (Liu et al., 2012); and the Early Indosinian episode (248–240 Ma), dominated by monzogranite and granite intrusions along the South Kunlun Fault Belt. The Hercynian to Indosinian period represents a continuous tectono-magmatic evolution, with most polymetallic deposits in the eastern EKOB forming during the late Hercynian to early Indosinian period (Yuan and Mo, 2000a; Yuan and Mo, 2000b; Liu et al., 2004; Xiong et al., 2011).

The southern East Kunlun area is composed primarily of Pliocene sandstones, Late Triassic pyroclastic rocks, Middle Carboniferous carbonates, and Ordovician volcanic rocks. The main magmatic rocks consist of Late Triassic biotite granites and granodiorites, as well as Late Permian granodiorites, aligned along NW–SE and NE–SW trending structures. The ore-forming systems are associated primarily with Late Triassic granodiorites and are structurally controlled by NE–SW trends (Figures 1c, 2).

Geological map of the Jiangjunmu porphyry copper-gold deposit, highlighting the study area (modified after Xiong, 2014).

Geological map of the DoulAn region with color-coded areas representing different rock types, including Holocene sediments, Triassic rocks, and Jurassic granite. Main faults are marked with red lines. Sampling locations are indicated by stars. A legend at the bottom provides detailed descriptions of each symbol and color used.

The eastern part of the EKOB hosts the Jiangjunmu Cu-Au deposit. The deposit is hosted in granodiorite porphyry and K-feldspar granite, both of which exhibit a close temporal-spatial relationship with mineralization and intrude into the K-feldspar granite porphyry (Figure 3f). The ore body is NW-SE trending, structurally controlled, with a length of 800 m and a width of 8 m, and extends to a depth of 400 m. The ore is composed primarily of copper and gold, with smaller amounts of silver and cobalt, containing a total of more than 0.41 Mt of Cu resources. Average grades are 0.57% Cu, 1.48 g/t Au, 3–485 g/t Ag, and 0.01% Co. The ore minerals are dominated by chalcopyrite and pyrite (Figures 3a–c), with gangue minerals including quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, biotite, sericite, and hornblende. Mineralization styles include vein-type, disseminated, and stockwork deposits. The main alteration types are potassic alteration, chloritization, silicification, sericitization (phyllic alteration), and argillic (clay) alteration. Among these, silicification and sericitization show the strongest correlation with Cu–Au mineralization.

Photomicrographs of intrusive rocks hosting the Jiangjunmu porphyry Cu-Au deposit in the EKOB. (a–c) Granodiorite porphyry hosting the main ore minerals; (d) Hydrothermally-altered granodiorite porphyry with plagioclase replaced by sericite-quartz aggregates; (e) K-feldspar granite exhibiting minor kaolin alteration and plagioclase replaced by sericite; (f) K-feldspar granite porphyry hosting quartz, plagioclase, and Kfs; (g) Mafic magmatic enclaves (MME) hosted in granodiorite porphyry; (h) Photomicrograph of MME composed predominantly of amphibole and plagioclase; (i) Photomicrograph of amphibole containing abundant felsic porphyroclasts. Cpy, chalcopyrite; Rut, rutile; Py, pyrite; Cov, covellite; Mrc, marcasite; Hbl, hornblende; Bt, biotite; Pl, plagioclase; Kfs, K-feldspar; Ill, illite; Ms, muscovite; Qz, quartz.

Nine microscopic images of mineral textures labeled (a) to (i). (a) to (c) depict minerals like Rutile, Chalcopyrite, Pyrite, and Covellite with millimeter-scale bar. (d) and (e) include minerals such as Amphibole, Plagioclase, Biotite, and Quartz. (f) shows Quartz, Plagioclase, and Potassium Feldspar grains. (g) features a macro view of a rock with a mafic microgranular enclave highlighted. (h) and (i) illustrate minerals like Plagioclase, Amphibole, Quartz, and Biotite observed under a microscope. Each image has annotated mineral labels and scale bars for reference. 3 Sampling and analytical methods

In the Jiangjunmu Cu-Au deposits of EKOB, a total of 12 samples from the ore-bearing granodiorite porphyry (Jjm 01–1, Jjm 01–2, Jjm 01–3, Jjm 01–4, Jjm 01–5, Jjm 01–6) and the K-feldspar granite (Jjm 02–1, Jjm 02–2, Jjm 02–3, Jjm 02–4, Jjm 02–5, Jjm 02–6) were collected for analysis. All fresh samples were selected from surface outcrops in the vicinity of Long: 98°16′50″E and Lat: 36°10′24″N. After petrographic study, elemental analyses were conducted on six K-feldspar granite samples. Six samples from the granodiorite porphyry and four samples from the K-feldspar granite were chosen for Sr–Nd–Pb.

For U-Pb dating, one fresh sample each of K-feldspar granite (Jjm 02–1) and intruded K-feldspar granite porphyry (Jjm 03) was selected. A total of sixteen zircon Lu–Hf isotope analyses were performed on the same U-Pb dating sample of K-feldspar granite.

3.1 Geochronology

In the Langfang Institute of Geological and Mineral Research Laboratory, zircon selection and crushing were performed on samples of the K-feldspar granite (Jjm 02–1) and K-feldspar granite porphyry (Jjm 03). U-Pb dating and trace element analysis of zircon were simultaneously conducted by LA-ICP-MS at the State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics (SKLCD), China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China. The detailed operating conditions for the laser ablation system, the ICP-MS instrument, and data reduction are the same as described by Zong et al. (2017). Laser sampling was performed using a GeolasPro laser ablation system, which consists of a COMPexPro 102 ArF excimer laser (wavelength of 193 nm and maximum energy of 200 mJ) and a MicroLas optical system. An Agilent 7700e ICP-MS instrument was used to acquire ion-signal intensities. Helium was applied as the carrier gas, while argon was used as the make-up gas, mixed with the carrier gas via a T-connector before entering the ICP. A “wire” signal smoothing device is included in this laser ablation system (Hu et al., 2015). The laser spot size and frequency were set to 24 µm and 80 Hz, respectively, in this study. Zircon 91500 and glass NIST610 were used as external standards for U-Pb dating and trace element calibration, respectively. Each analysis included a background acquisition of approximately 20–30 s, followed by 50 s of data acquisition from the sample. An Excel-based software, ICPMSDataCal, was used for off-line selection and integration of the background and analyzed signals, time-drift correction, and quantitative calibration for trace element analysis and U-Pb dating (Liu et al., 2008). Concordia diagrams and weighted mean calculations were made using Isoplot/Ex_ver3 (Ludwig, 2003).

 3.2 Whole-rock elemental geochemistry

Whole-rock major elements were analyzed using a PANalytical Axios Max X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer, and trace elements, including REEs, were determined with an Agilent 7700e inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) at the State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics (SKLCD), China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China. Major element compositions were obtained by fusing 500 mg of sample with anhydrous lithium tetraborate, ammonium nitrate (as an oxidant), and fluxes of lithium fluoride and lithium bromide in a 1:10 sample-to-flux ratio. The FeO content was determined by potassium dichromate titration, while the H2O content was measured by heating powdered samples at 1,000 °C in a tube furnace, followed by gravimetric absorption. For trace element analysis, the sample digestion procedure involved several steps. First, the powder sample (200 mesh) was placed in an oven at 105 °C and dried for 12 h. A 50 mg portion of the powder was then accurately weighed and placed in a Teflon bomb. To this, 1 mL of HNO3 and 1 mL of HF were slowly added. The Teflon bomb was then placed in a stainless-steel pressure jacket and heated to 190 °C in an oven for more than 24 h. After cooling, the Teflon bomb was opened and placed on a hotplate at 140 °C, where it was evaporated to incipient dryness. Following this, 1 mL of HNO3 was added and evaporated to dryness again. Next, 1 mL of HNO3, 1 mL of MQ water, and 1 mL of an internal standard solution (1 ppm In) were added. The Teflon bomb was resealed and placed back in the oven at 190 °C for more than 12 h. Finally, the solution was transferred to a polyethylene bottle and diluted to 100 g by adding 2% HNO3. After dilution, the solution was analyzed using the Agilent 7700e ICP-MS to quantify element concentrations. For further details, follow the procedures of Khan et al. (2023). The accuracy of the analyses was approximately 5%.

 3.3 Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic geochemistry

The Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic ratios of the whole-rock samples were measured at the Geochemical Laboratory of the China Geological Survey (CGS) in Wuhan. The samples were first crushed and ground, then sieved through a 200-mesh screen, and dried in an oven at 80 °C for 3 h. A 100 mg portion of each sample was spiked with tracer solutions (85Rb + 84Sr and 149Sm + 145Nd), followed by dissolution in separate solutions of HF, HNO3, and HClO4 at 190 °C for 48 h. To isolate and purify Rb, Sr, Sm, and Nd, cation resin ion-exchange chromatography (Dowex508) and Di-(2-Ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (HDEHP) methods were employed. The isotopic concentrations of Rb, Sr, Sm, and Nd were measured using a Thermo Triton Plus Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometer (TIMS). The isotopic ratios of Sr and Nd were corrected based on the values of 86Sr/87Sr = 0.1194 and 146Nd/144Nd = 0.7219. Analysis of the standard NBS987 and GBW04411 resulted in average values of 87Sr/86Sr = 0.71031 ± 0.00003 (2σ) and 143Nd/144Nd = 0.512637 ± 0.000005 (2σ), both of which fall within the acceptable error limits of the approved values (Khan et al., 2023).

For Pb isotope analysis, approximately 100 mg of each powdered sample was dissolved in an equal-parts mixture of HF and HNO3 within a Teflon beaker. The separation and purification of Pb were carried out using an anion exchange resin (BIO-RAD AG1-X8), with HBr serving as the eluent in a Teflon column. Following purification, Pb was deposited onto a rhenium filament using a combination of H3PO4 and silica gel. Isotopic ratios of Pb were then determined using a MAT261 thermal ionization mass spectrometer (TIMS). To account for instrumental mass fractionation, the measured Pb ratios were adjusted based on repeated analyses of the NBS981 Pb standard, yielding a correction factor of 0.1% per atomic mass unit. The overall analytical precision was within 0.1% (2σ), and the total procedural blanks contained less than 60 pg of Pb.

 3.4 Lu-Hf isotopic geochemistry

In situ Hf isotopic analyses were conducted using a neptune plus multi-collector (LA-MC-ICP-MS) at the State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics (SKLCD), China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China. The analysis employed a laser repetition rate of 8 Hz at 100 mJ with spot sizes of 40 μm, and 91500-zircon was used as the standard. Instrument operating conditions and analytical procedure were adopted from Hu et al. (2015), and Hf-mode ages were calculated using the method of Griffin et al. (2002).

 4 Analytical results 4.1 Petrographic study

The granodiorite porphyry exhibits porphyritic textures, with phenocrysts constituting approximately 10 vol%. These phenocrysts consist of subhedral plagioclase crystals (∼5 vol%), equant K-feldspar crystals (∼3 vol%), and medium-grained quartz crystals (∼2 vol%), set in a fine-grained groundmass (90 vol%) composed of subhedral biotite, plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, and accessory minerals such as zircon, apatite, and rutile (Figure 3d). The phenocrysts range from 0.3 to 2 mm in size, with plagioclase occurring as hypidiomorphic plates and polysynthetic twins (0.5–2 mm). Granodiorite is the main ore-bearing rock, having undergone moderate to strong silicification and sericitic alteration, with the ore occurring primarily as veins and disseminated deposits.

The K-feldspar granite is in close contact with the granodiorite porphyry (Figure 3e) and displays a granitic texture consisting of coarse-grained euhedral K-feldspar (∼65 vol%), medium-grained quartz (∼30 vol%), and minor accessory minerals (∼5 vol%), including hornblende, magnetite, zircon, and apatite. This rock has undergone slight potassic silicification and sericitic alteration. The ore occurs as stockwork, suggesting post-mineralization of the granite. Additionally, numerous mafic magmatic enclaves (MMEs) hosted within the granodiorite porphyry are approximately 3–5 cm in diameter at the outcrop. These enclaves exhibit porphyritic texture (Figures 3g–i) and are mainly composed of medium-grained subhedral plagioclase (∼60 vol%), with a fine-grained groundmass consisting of hornblende (∼20 vol%), K-feldspar (∼10 vol%), and quartz (∼7 vol%), along with ∼3 vol% accessory minerals such as biotite, magnetite, and minor zircon, calcite, epidote, and titanite. These rocks have experienced strong serpentine alteration.

 4.2 Zircon U–Pb dating

The detailed zircon U-Pb analytical results for the K-feldspar granite (Jjm 02–1) and K-feldspar granite porphyry (Jjm03) are presented in Supplementary Table S1. Concordia diagrams with cathodoluminescence (CL) images and weighted mean age plots are shown in Figure 4. Most of the zircons from Jiangjunmu rock samples are hypidiomorphic laths or short and columnar in shape, with wide concentric oscillatory zoning. These zircons have crystal lengths of 80–120 μm and length-to-width ratios ranging from 2:1 to 1.5:1, respectively. Zircons from both samples exhibit high Th/U ratios (averaging 0.7), consistent with a magmatic origin (Wu and Zheng, 2004; Yu et al., 2025). A total of 16 zircon analyses from Jjm 02–1 yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 228.7 ± 1.8 Ma (MSWD = 0.1) (Figure 4a') and 16 zircon analyses from Jjm03 yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 234.7 ± 1.0 Ma (MSWD = 0.25) (Figure 4b'). The ages of both rock units are consistent with their intrusive contact relationships.

Zircon U–Pb Concordia diagrams with cathodoluminescence (CL) images of zircons and weighted mean ages of: (a,a') K-feldspar granite and (b,b') K-feldspar granite porphyry.

Graphs display isotopic dating results for granite samples Jjm02 and Jjm03. The left panels show Concordia diagrams with ellipses for age uncertainty, while the right panels present age distribution bar graphs. Jjm02 has a mean age of 228.7 million years. Jjm03 has a mean age of 234.7 million years. Insets show zircon images. 4.3 Major and trace elements analysis

The major and trace element analysis results are presented in Supplementary Table S2. Most samples exhibit LOI values ranging from 0.2 to 2.1 wt%, indicating slight hydrothermal alteration, consistent with petrographic observations. LOI values are less than 3 wt% for relatively fresh or little altered rock samples (Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995; Kraus, 2005; Wang et al., 2009; Junaid et al., 2024).

The K-feldspar granite varies slightly, exhibiting overall characteristics of high SiO2 (69.44–75.04 wt%), Al2O3 (12.19–15.17 wt%), K2O (3.07–4.64 wt%) with K2O/Na2O (0.87–1.62), and low MgO (0.66–1.19 wt%) with Mg# (36–39). Based on their chemical compositions, they mainly plot in the quartz monzonite and granite areas on the SiO2 vs. K2O + Na2O diagram (Figure 5a) and show a high-K calc-alkaline series on the SiO2 vs. K2O diagram (Figure 5b). However, in the P2O5/Al2O3 vs. K2O/Al2O3 diagram (Figure 5c), which can be used to eliminate the effects of alteration (Crawford et al., 2007), the K-feldspar granite plots in the low-K field. This suggests that the high-K content of the K-feldspar granite is likely a result of later potassic alteration or contamination from the upper crust. Additionally, as shown in Figure 5d, the K-feldspar granite shows a transition from meta-aluminous to peraluminous and from I-type granites to S-type granites, which may be attributed to upper crustal contamination (McDonough et al., 1992).

TAS classification diagrams for the Jiangjunmu K-feldspar granite: (a) SiO2 vs. (Na2O + K2O) classification diagram (after Middlemost, 1994); (b) K2O vs. SiO2 variation diagram (Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976); (c) P2O5/Al2O3 vs. K2O/Al2O3 discrimination diagram (after Crawford et al., 2007); (d) A/CNK vs. A/NK diagram (after Maniar and Piccoli, 1989).

Four geochemical diagrams analyzing rock samples. Panel (a) is a Na2O+K2O vs. SiO2 diagram, showing rock classifications like granite and quartzolite. Panel (b) is a K2O vs. SiO2 diagram, depicting series such as shoshonitic and calc-alkaline. Panel (c) plots P2O5/Al2O3 vs. K2O/Al2O3, dividing the data into shoshonitic and low potassium fields. Panel (d) shows a plot of Al2O3/(Na2O+K2O) vs. Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O) with I-type and S-type granite categories. Red diamonds represent granodiorite porphyry, and green circles indicate K-feldspar granite.

The K-feldspar granite has relatively high ∑REE (162.12–205.88 ppm) and experienced significant fractionation with high (La/Yb) N (18.38–20.19; Figure 6). They are characterized by a right-inclined shape with high LREE/HREE ratios (13.61–15.87), weak negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.55–0.68), and a relative enrichment of large ion lithophile elements (LILE), such as Th, U, Rb, and K, along with depletion of high field strength elements (HFSE) like Nb, P, Ba, Ti, Zr, and Eu, indicating arc geochemical affinities (Figure 8a; Kelemen et al., 2003). A positive Sr anomaly and weak negative Eu anomalies suggest that plagioclase underwent slight fractional crystallization. The depletion of P and Ti further indicates that the magma experienced fractional crystallization of apatite, titanite, and Ti-rich minerals.

Geochemical discrimination diagrams for the Jiangjunmu K-feldspar granite: (a) Sr/Y vs. Y (after Defant and Drummond, 1990). and (b) (La/Yb)N vs. Sr/Y (after Sun et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2010).

Two geochemical plots labeled "a" and "b." Plot "a" shows Sr/Y versus Y, highlighting adakites and arc calc-alkaline rocks. Plot "b" shows Sr/Y versus (La/Yb)_N, indicating partial melting of subducting oceanic crust and lower continental crust (LCC). Symbols denote granodiorite porphyry and K-feldspar granite. 4.4 Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic analysis

The whole-rock Sr-Nd-Pb isotope results for the granodiorite porphyry and K-feldspar granite are presented in Supplementary Tables S3, S4, respectively. The Sr and Nd isotopic compositions of the granodiorite porphyry show initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios ranging from 0.70555 to 0.70913 and εNd(t) values from −8.27 to −8.93, with two-stage Nd model mean age is 1,698 Ma. The K-feldspar granite samples have initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios from 0.70884 to 0.70944, except for one sample (Jjm02-4, which has a ratio of 0.7015), and εNd(t) values from −4.32 to −5.24, with two-stage Nd model mean age is 1,398 Ma. The Pb isotopic compositions of the granodiorite porphyry and K-feldspar granite show 206Pb/204Pb ratios from 18.349 to 18.388 (mean = 18.371) and 18.368 to 18.579 (mean = 18.466), 207Pb/204Pb ratios from 15.664 to 15.682 (mean = 15.674) and 15.615 to 15.677 (mean = 15.647), 208Pb/204Pb ratios from 38.526 to 38.650 (mean = 38.5785) and 38.443 to 38.544 (mean = 38.494), μ (238U/204Pb) values ranging from 9.60 to 9.63 (mean = 9.61) and 9.50 to 9.61 (mean = 9.55), and ω (232Th/204Pb) values ranging from 39.51 to 40.01 (mean = 39.69) and 37.31 to 38.53 (mean = 37.8), respectively.

 4.5 Lu-Hf isotopic analysis

The zircon U-Pb spots were used to analyze the in situ Hf isotopic compositions. Sixteen dated zircon grains from K-feldspar granite (Jjm 02–1) were selected for Hf isotopic composition analysis, and the result is presented in Supplementary Table S5. The Hf isotopic data show that the zircons from the K-feldspar granite have εHf(t) values ranging from −8.18 to −3.83, with corresponding two-stage Hf model ages ranging from 1,342 to 1,582 Ma (mean = 1,500 Ma).

 5 Discussion 5.1 Petrogenesis 5.1.1 Origin and source of the Jiangjunmu intrusion

The Jiangjunmu K-feldspar granite has high SiO2, Al2O3, and K2O contents, with K2O/Na2O > 1, and low Sr, Y, and Yb contents. All the samples in the SiO2 vs. Na2O, MgO, TiO2, Cr, P2O5, Ni, Al2O3, and Mg# variation diagrams are almost trending in the lower continental crust (LCC) field (Figures 7a–h). Moreover, the Jiangjunmu K-feldspar granite and the adjacent granodiorite porphyry exhibit rare earth element (REE) patterns consistent with lower continental crust (LCC) signatures (Figure 8; Rudnick and Gao, 2003; Yu et al., 2020), supporting their origin through partial melting of the LCC during Late Triassic magmatism in the Mo Getong and Xiang Rede areas (Xiong, 2014; Figure 8). Although there are some differences in petrologic characteristics and major-trace element contents, these suggest that both rocks originated from the same source area. The contents and ratios of La and Yb, Sr, and Y are important parameters for studying the source area of the rocks (Sun and McDonough, 1989; Rudnick and Gao, 2003; Sun et al., 2008). The K-feldspar granite has high Sr/Y and La/Yb values, consistent with the adjacent Jiangjunmu granodiorite porphyry, the barren adakites from the Dabie Mountains and ore-bearing granodiorite porphyry from the GDMB, which were related to the partial melting of the lower continental crust (Supplementary Table S6; Wang et al., 2007; Huang et al., 2008; Ling et al., 2011; Yu et al., 2020). This is significantly different from the Lower Yangtze River Belt (LYRB), which is related to the partial melting of the subducted oceanic slab represented by N-MORB (Supplementary Table S6; Xu et al., 2002; Ling et al., 2011). Moreover, the argument is also supported by the results from the Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopes (Figures 9a,b). In the εNd(t) vs. (87Sr/86Sr)i diagram, all samples of the granodiorite porphyry and K-feldspar granite plot in the LCC fields, consistent with I-type granite derived from the LCC in the Late Triassic East Kunlun (Figure 9a). In the 207Pb/204Pb vs. 208Pb/204Pb diagram, all samples plot in the LCC fields (Figure 9b), consistent with the GDMB, which are characterized by (87Sr/86Sr)i (0.705252–0.706708), 206Pb/204Pb (18.106–18.752), 207Pb/204Pb (18.106–18.752), and 208Pb/204Pb (37.394–39.058) (Xiaoming et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2019), different from the LYRB (Xu et al., 2002; Ling et al., 2011) and Cook Islands (Stern and Kilian, 1996; Hou et al., 2004). These results collectively indicate that both Jiangjunmu intrusions were derived from a LCC magma source through partial melting. (Figure 10d).

SiO2variation diagrams of the Jiangjunmu K-feldspar granite. (a)Na2O vs. SiO2diagram; (b)MgO vs. SiO2diagram; (c)TiO2vs. SiO2diagram; (d)SiO2vs. Cr diagram; (e)SiO2vs. P2O5diagram; (f)SiO2vs. Ni diagram; (g)SiO2vs. Al2O3diagram; (h)SiO2vs. Mg#diagram. Adakites related to subducted oceanic crust (Wang et al., 2006a; Eyuboglu et al., 2011), Adakites related to thickened lower (Zhao et al., 2020), Adakites related to delaminated lower crust (Xu et al., 2002; Gao et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2004), Metabasaltic and eclogitic melts (Rapp et al., 1999; Rapp et al., 2002; Eyuboglu et al., 2011), Pure slab melt (Stern and Kilian, 1996; Eyuboglu et al., 2011), Mantle melt (Eyuboglu et al., 2011), Fractional crystallization of basaltic magmas (FCBM) (Castillo et al., 1999; Macpherson et al., 2006; Jiang et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2005; Xu et al., 2002; Xu et al., 2017); Partial melting of the lower crust (PMLC) (Xu et al., 2002; Wang et al., 2006; Jiang et al., 2007); The I-type and S-type trends from Hieu et al. (2020).

Geochemical diagrams show various element concentrations. Panels a-h compare Na2O, MgO, TiO2, Cr, P2O5, Ni, Al2O3, and Mg# against SiO2. Colored lines indicate different trends and regions, identifying features like adakitic and mantle melts. Shapes represent distinct rock types: red diamonds for granodiorite porphyry, green circles for K-feldspar granite. Dashed lines and annotations indicate geochemical trends and melting conditions.

(a) Chondrite-normalized rare earth elements (REE) spider diagram for the Jiangjunmu K-feldspar granite; (b) Primitive mantle-normalized incompatible elements spider diagram for the Jiangjunmu K-feldspar granite. Chondrite and primitive mantle reference values are from Sun and McDonough (1989); upper and lower continental crust data are from Rudnick and Gao (2003). Data for Late Triassic granite, diorite, and granodiorite porphyry are from Xiong (2014).

Two line graphs compare geochemical samples. Graph (a) plots samples to chondrite ratios for elements La to Lu, highlighting Late Triassic granite, diorite, and granodiorite porphyry. Graph (b) shows samples to primitive mantle ratios for elements Rb to Lu. The data includes Lower Continental Crust, Upper Continental Crust, granodiorite porphyry from a 2020 study, and K-feldspar granite from the current study. Gray areas indicate variance.

(a) εNd(t) vs. (87Sr/86Sr)i diagram (after Winter 2001); (b) (208Pb/204Pb)i vs. (206Pb/204Pb)i diagram (after Zindler and Hart, 1986); (c) Histogram of zircon εHf(t) values; (d) Zircon εHf(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages (after Bodet and Schärer, 2000). Mafic magmatic enclaves (MME), Andean Volcanic Zone (AVZ), assimilation and fractional crystallization (AFC), depleted mantle (DM), Eastern Pacific Rise basalts (EPRB), Mid-Atlantic Ridge basalts (MARB), mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB), North Andean Volcanic Zone (NAVC), and lower continental crust (LCC).

Panel of four geological graphs analyzing geochemical data. (a) Plot of initial strontium versus neodymium isotopic compositions with labels indicating rock types. (b) Lead isotope diagram with fields showing different geological regions. (c) Histogram displaying distribution of epsilon hafnium values, distinguishing between crust and mantle origins. (d) Lead isotopic ages plotted against epsilon hafnium, indicating crust-mantle evolution trends. Each panel contains legends correlating symbols to rock types and references.

Tectonic discrimination diagrams for the Jiangjunmu intrusions: (a) Y + Nb versus Rb (ppm); (b) Nb versus Y (ppm) (after Pearce et al., 1984; Pearce, 1996); (c) Th/Yb versus Th/Sm (after Zhu et al., 2009); (d) La/Yb vs. La (Furman and Graham, 1999). Within-plate granites (WPG), volcanic-arc granites (VAG), collision-related granites (COLG), ocean-ridge granites (ORG), post-collisional adakites (PCA).

Four geochemical discrimination diagrams illustrate various rock compositions. (a) Rb versus Y+Nb plot categorizes rocks into COLG, VAG, WPG, and ORG. (b) Nb versus Y plot distinguishes between VAG + COLG, WPG, and ORG fields. (c) Th/Yb versus Th/Sm plot highlights sediment melts and post-collision adakite, with basalt indicated. (d) La versus La/Yb plot shows crystallization and partial melting trends with rock types labeled. Each plot includes legends identifying diorite porphyry, granodiorites, granodiorite porphyry, and K-feldspar granite.

Previous research work (Green, 1994; Wu et al., 2002; Rollinson, 2003; Davidson et al., 2007) indicates that the residue of garnet and amphibole in the magma source significantly affects the distribution pattern of HREEs and the Y/Yb ratio of the derived melts. When the source is dominated by garnet as the residue the derived melts are strongly enriched in HREEs, with Y/Yb > 10 and (Ho/Yb)N > 1.2 (Green, 1994). In contrast, amphibole-bearing sources generate melts with near-chondritic Y/Yb (∼10) and (Ho/Yb)N (∼1.2) ratios along with flatter HREE patterns, reflecting amphibole’s greater affinity for MREEs (Green, 1994; Wu et al., 2002; Rollinson, 2003; Davidson et al., 2007). The K-feldspar granite has high Y/Yb (9.2–11.9) and (Ho/Yb) N (2.7–3.2), with a relatively flat HREE distribution pattern. The Jiangjunmu granodiorite porphyry adjacent to the K-feldspar granite is directly related to amphibole melt, combined with the high contents of SiO2 and Al2O3, the enrichment of Sr, and low Y and Yb values, along with a slightly negative Eu anomaly (Yu et al., 2020). These characteristics indicate that the granodiorite porphyry-related magma may have originated from an amphibole-garnet source with the suppression of plagioclase crystallization within the lower crust (Defant and Drummond, 1990). This is similar to the melt composition produced by the melting of meta-basalt or eclogite under conditions of 1–4.0 GPa (Figures 7b,h; Rapp, 1995; Rapp and Watson, 1995) because experimental petrology studies concluded that under high-pressure conditions (>1 GPa), rocks such as basalt, eclogite, and amphibolite will form a melt with garnet as the main remnant mineral phase (Xiao and Clemens, 2007). The K-feldspar granite samples trend in the diagram from the amphibolite melt to the metasandstone zone (Figure 11), indicating that their source area enrichment is similar to that of the granodiorite porphyry, with some differences.

(a) Plots of CaO + MgO + FeOT + TiO2 vs. CaO/MgO + FeOT + TiO2; (b) plots of Al2O3+MgO + FeOT + TiO2 vs. Al2O3/MgO + FeOT + TiO2 (after Altherr and Siebel, 2002; Kaygusuz et al., 2008).

Diagram with two panels (a and b). Panel (a) plots CaO/MgO+FeOT+TiO2 versus CaO+MgO+FeOT+TiO2. Panel (b) plots Al2O3+FeOT+MgO+TiO2 versus Al2O3+FeOT+MgO+TiO2. Both panels show areas labeled metamudstone, metasandstone, and amphibolite melts. Symbols represent granodiorite porphyry and K-feldspar granite, with data from Yu et al., 2020. 5.1.2 Mantle and LCC contributions to Jiangjunmu intrusion formation

The contribution from the mantle and the interaction between the mantle and LCC in the magmatic chamber play an important role in the formation of porphyry deposits and ore-bearing porphyries (Richards and Kerrich, 2007; Hou et al., 2011). The granodiorite porphyry has relatively low Mg# values and Sr concentrations (Yu et al., 2020), which lie between those of the enriched mantle (Sr = 1,100 ppm) and LCC (Sr = 290 ppm) (Chen and Zhai, 2003). Furthermore, few MMEs are hosted in the Jiangjunmu granodiorite porphyry (Figure 3g), indicating that there is material exchange between the mantle and LCC in the magma chamber. This argument is further supported by the Sr, and Nd isotopic compositions (Figures 9a,c,d). The granodiorite porphyry has initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70555–0.70913) that lie between those of the modern primitive mantle (average value: 0.7045; DePaolo and Wasserburg, 1976) and the continental crust (average value: 0.719; Sun, 2001). On the 87Sr/86Sr vs. εNd(t) diagram (Figure 9a), all granodiorite porphyry samples plot within the fields of LCC or a mixture of LCC and mantle, consistent with Xiang rede area granodiorites and the Mo Getong area diorite porphyry, both formed by the mixing of LCC and mantle. In addition, the granodiorite porphyry has εHf(t) values ranging from −1.7 to +1.01 (Yu et al., 2020). These results suggest that there was a mantle contribution to the formation of the Jiangjunmu granodiorite porphyry, with mantle-enclave grains (Mg# > 40; Rapp and Watson, 1995). Furthermore, previous experimental petrological research has suggested that basaltic melts, which are high in elements like S, Cu (Au), and Co (Hofmann, 1997; Rudnick and Gao, 2003), underplate felsic magmas and interact with each other, elevating the Cu (Au) content of the magma. While crust-derived felsic magmas typically have low solubility for S and Cu (Au), but high contents of Pb, Zn, Ag, etc. (Wallace and Carmichael, 1992; Mungall, 2002; Hou et al., 2013). These findings indicate that the Cu (Au) contents of the Jiangjunmu deposit may have originated from the mantle. In contrast, the K-feldspar granite shows lower Mg# values (36–39) and relatively higher 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70884–0.70944), with Sr concentrations (179.8–266.1ppm) that are lower than the Sr content of both the LCC (Sr = 290 ppm) and the enriched mantle (Sr = 1,100 ppm). The εHf(t) values of the K-feldspar granite (−8.18 to −3.83) are also more negative than those of the granodiorite porphyry (Figure 9d). These results, combined with data from Figure 11, indicate that an upper continental crust composition (heterotypic sandstone) contributed to the formation of the K-feldspar granite during magmatic evolution, as reflected by its high 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70884–0.70944; Supplementary Table S3), TDM2 values (1,342–1,582 Ma; Supplementary Table S5), and decreased εHf(t) values (−8.18 to −3.83; Supplementary Table S5).

 5.2 Tectonic implications 5.2.1 Tectonic setting of Jiangjunmu intrusions

A variety of tectonic models have been proposed for most of the porphyry deposits in the world, which mainly occur in continental margins (e.g., Richards et al., 2001) and island-arc settings related to the subduction of the ocean (Kerrich et al., 2000; Richards et al., 2001), as well as continental rifting and extensional intracontinental settings (Wang et al., 2006; Hou and Cook, 2009). The Jiangjunmu porphyry deposit is located in the northern part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, an important area in the evolution of the Tethys Ocean. In the Y + Nb vs. Rb diagram, all samples plot in the volcanic-arc granites (VAG) field (Figure 10a). In the Nb vs. Y diagram (Figure 10b), all samples plot in the VAG + collision-related granites (COLG) fields. In the Th/Sm vs. Th/Yb diagram (Figure 10c), all samples plot in the post-collisional adakites (PCA) field, indicating that the Jiangjunmu intrusions formed during the transition stage from the COLG to PCA tectonic setting. Moreover, Li et al. (2013), Cao et al. (2015), Bai et al. (2016), and Xia et al. (2015) studied diorite (zircon U-Pb: 225.8 ± 1.5 Ma) in Gerizhuotuo, granite (zircon U-Pb: 225 ± 1.7 Ma) in Gouli, diorite (zircon U-Pb: 228 ± 2 Ma) in Galinge, and plagiogranite (zircon U-Pb: 227.2 ± 10 Ma) in Shuangqing, and their results show that these rock masses formed in a post-collision extensional setting of east Kunlun. Wu et al. (2011) reported the formation of a suite of granite (zircon U-Pb: 218 ± 2 Ma) by mixing of crustal and mantle materials in Maxingdaban, suggesting that the granite formed in the post-orogenic extensional setting after the Tethys Ocean closed in the EKOB region. In this study, we determined the ages of the K-feldspar granite porphyry and K-feldspar granite to be 234 Ma and 228 Ma, respectively (Figures 4a’,b’). Additionally, the granodiorite porphyry age, as determined by Yu et al. (2020), is 218 Ma. When compared to the ages of East Kunlun, these results suggest that the Jiangjunmu intrusions formed in a post-orogenic extensional setting. However, all samples show arc geochemical affinities (Figures 8a, 10a,b), consistent with the arc-like magma source described by Kelemen et al. (2003), which may be inherited from the juvenile crust produced during the Mesoproterozoic oceanic subduction between the Bayan Har Block and East Kunlun Crust.

 5.2.2 Magmatic genesis of the Jiangjunmu porphyry deposits

The recognition of the physical and chemical features of porphyry systems could lead to the discovery of concealed ore deposits (Wilkinson, 2013). A better understanding of the genesis of ore-bearing rocks not only provides comprehensive insight into the evolution of magmatic-hydrothermal systems but also facilitates mineral exploration. The Jiangjunmu porphyry deposit formed in a post-collisional tectonic setting, with the ore-bearing rocks forming in the Late Triassic when the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean closed (Yu et al., 2020). This suggests that oceanic subduction is not responsible for the formation of the deposit. Thus, two main diagenesis models have been proposed for the formation of ore-bearing porphyry rocks:

1. Partial melting of the delaminated lower continental crust and interaction with the upwelling hot mantle (Xu et al., 2002; Chung et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2007).

2. Direct partial melting of the thickened lower continental crust (TLCC) or TLCC interaction with the upwelling hot mantle (Chung et al., 2003; Zhao and Zhou, 2008).

The Jiangjunmu granodiorite porphyry (Yu et al., 2020) and K-feldspar granite exhibit relatively high Rb/Sr ratios and Mg# values, consistent with adakites (Figure 7h) formed by the melting of thickened lower continental crust (TLCC) or delaminated lower continental crust (DLCC). Adakites typically have a Rb/Sr ratios >0.05 ppm and Mg# values between 27 and 54 (Drummond et al., 1996; Hou et al., 2004; Alirezaei et al., 2017). Additionally, in the SiO2 variation diagram (Figures 7a–h), all samples of the granodiorite porphyry fall within the overlapping fields of DLCC and TLCC. However, the partial melting of the DLCC would cause the lower continental crust (LCC) to subduct into the deep mantle, with a significantly elevated magma content of MgO, Mg#, Cr, Ni, and Co during magma-mantle interaction. In contrast, the Jiangjunmu granodiorite porphyry (Yu et al., 2020) and K-feldspar granite exhibit relatively low values of MgO, Mg#, Cr, Ni, and Co. Furthermore, the granodiorite porphyry (Yu et al., 2020) and K-feldspar granite have Rb/Sr ratios (0.4–0.44, 0.63–1.02) that distinguish them from newly formed basaltic melts resulting from the partial melting of the DLCC, which typically have Rb/Sr ratios of 0.01–0.05 (Huang et al., 2009). These results suggest that the formation of the Jiangjunmu intrusions is related to the partial melting of TLCC rather than DLCC.

In conclusion, based on the tectonic background and regional research, the Jiangjunmu intrusions (granodiorite porphyry and K-feldspar granite) formed in a post-collisional orogenic extensional setting after the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The detachment of the subducted slab, accompanied by extensional forces, led to the thickening of the lower continental crust, which underwent partial melting and interacted with upwelling deep mantle materials. This process resulted in the formation of magma associated with metallogenesis. The magma was subsequently transported along faults and ascended to the near-surface, where it experienced diagenetic alteration and mineralization (Figure 12).

Conceptual model for the Jiangjunmu Au-Cu deposit associated with intrusions (after Xiong, 2014).

Cross-sectional diagram illustrating geological structures with labeled zones. Features include Bayan Har Block, East Kunlun Crust, Low Continent Crust, Lithospheric Mantle, and Asthenospheric Mantle. Elements like Ocean Slab, Ophiolite Suture Zone, and Delaminated Ocean Slab are indicated. Labels show processes like partial melting and upwelling, with ore-bearing rocks and hydrothermal activity in the fault zone. Color-coded legend explains various geological layers and compositions such as granodiorite porphyry and K-feldspar granite. Arrows indicate movement and geological processes. 6 Conclusion

K-feldspar granite porphyry (234 Ma) intruded by K-feldspar granite (228 Ma) that host the Jiangjunmu Cu–Au deposits in the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt (EKOB), exhibits the following petrogenetic and tectonic implications:

1. The K-feldspar granite magma, with contributions from upper continental crustal material (heterotypic sandstone), likely originated through partial melting of an amphibole–garnet-bearing source within the TLCC. The adjacent granodiorite porphyry may also have originated from a similar amphibole–garnet source, with suppressed plagioclase crystallization during partial melting within the TLCC. The porphyry-hosed MMEs indicate that the Cu (Au) content of the Jiangjunmu deposit may have a mantle-derived origin.

2. The Jiangjunmu porphyry deposit rocks formed in a post-collisional extensional setting during the Late Triassic epoch after the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean closed.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

 Author contributions

YJ: Writing – original draft, Project administration, Investigation. LD: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal Analysis. GY: Methodology, Writing – original draft, Investigation. MB: Writing – original draft, Software, Data curation. ZY: Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing – original draft. JK: Writing – review and editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision. AT: Writing – review and editing, Software.

 Funding

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. This work was supported by the following funding sources: Project of State Key Laboratory of Ni & Co associated minerals resources development and comprehensive utilization (No. JKDGNZ26Z202406); Natural Science Foundation project of Gansu Province (No. 24JRC001); Commonwealth project from the Ministry of Land and Resources (No. 1015); Changjiang Scholars and Innovative Research Team in Universities (No. RT14R54); China Geological Survey (Nos 1212011121204, 12120113032800, 21201011000150004).

We gratefully acknowledge all project members and sincerely thank Professor Nanshi Zeng from the College of Earth Sciences, Guilin University of Technology, for his valuable suggestions and insightful discussions. We also extend our appreciation to the supporting laboratories for their assistance.

 Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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 Supplementary material

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