Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is highly prevalent, and it is estimated that one in fifty-four individuals in the United States of America [USA (1);] and 0.6% globally (2) have ASD. Common characteristics of ASD include deficits in social communication, restricted repetitive behaviors, and ASD is often associated with social, academic, and occupational impairments (3, 4). Individuals with ASD* face challenges related to accessing treatment, such as stigma and long waitlists (5, 6). Additionally, the aggregate cost of supporting people with ASD in the USA is estimated at $196 billion for adults (7). Furthermore, adults with ASD experience significant difficulties finding providers willing to treat them or who have knowledge of ASD (8), and many report feeling misunderstood by professionals (5).

Technology has the potential to increase access to resources and information, provide support in daily activities, promote independence, and assist with occupational skills for individuals with ASD (9). In recent years, there has been an increase in studies on digital tools for ASD (10). Some examples include social skills training through virtual reality [VR; (11)], cognitive and face-processing training through serious games (12), and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) through tablets used as speech-generating devices (13). Although VR, serious games, or AAC tools can facilitate the learning process, their ability to promote interaction is limited, and they often do not mimic conversations with humans.

Conversational agent (CA or Chatbot) interventions have been increasingly adopted over the last decade as a viable resource for mental health care (14). CA's can offer context-specific and continuous accessible support, and studies on chatbots for mental health have shown promising clinical outcomes thus far (15, 16). In a meta-analysis on chatbot-delivered psychotherapy in adults, significant improvements were found in depressive symptoms (17). Other studies have shown promising outcomes in the reduction of attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptoms for adults (18), anxiety symptoms in college students (19, 20), and chronic pain (21). Additionally, chatbot utilization has been associated with higher retention rates compared to other digital interventions (17, 21), increased service utilization for individuals with eating disorders (22), and has assisted with teaching parenting skills (23).

The interactive and conversational format of chatbots led to a series of interesting findings showing that adults can form a positive relationship with a chatbot (24–26). Dosovitsky and Bunge (26) reported that users perceived the CA as safe, non-judgmental, caring, and open to listening. In the study by Beatty et al. (24), participants reported feeling gratitude and appreciation toward a therapeutic chatbot and reported levels of therapeutic alliance similar to in-person studies. The users in Darcy et al. (25) study also formed a therapeutic alliance with a CA within a few days, at levels comparable to in-person studies, and remained stable after eight weeks. These studies have important clinical implications given that if individuals with ASD can form a relationship with a chatbot, this may be an avenue for additional support and user-friendly interventions for this underserved population. However, there is a limited number of studies that have focused on the use of chatbots by individuals with ASD.

A review of a mental health CA (27) found ten chatbot studies focusing on ASD. Most of these studies aimed to improve social skills (28–30) or job interviewing skills (31), and one study focused on ASD assessment (32). Razavi et al. (30) and Ali et al. (28) tested Live Interactive Social Skills Assistant (LISSA), which was created to provide real-time feedback to adolescents with ASD about their nonverbal behaviors and to help them practice conversational skills. In both studies, participants provided mixed reviews, and the samples were small; five participants in Razavi et al. (30) and nine in Ali et al. (28). Lahiri et al. (29) designed a VR-based adaptive response technology to assist children with ASD with social interactions and found that social communication skills could be improved by utilizing this technology (29). Smith et al. (31) tested a virtual reality job interview training (VR-JIT), an interactive role-play simulation designed to help individuals with ASD improve their performance in a job interview. A preliminary study showed that VR-JIT effectively increased users' performance scores (31). Mujeeb et al. (32) created an ASD assessment chatbot and showed that, when compared to human psychologists, Aquabot had 88% accuracy in diagnosing ASD.

While studies on CA's have shown promising outcomes, they still present several limitations. Chatbots have a limited ability in understanding the nuances of users' experiences (33). Many studies reported users feeling annoyed by the lack of understanding or technical problems (26, 34, 35), as well as the unnatural flow of the conversation (18). Chatbot studies for ASD present similar limitations. The sample sizes of the chatbot studies for ASD are small, mostly case studies, and focused on children with ASD rather than adults (36, 37). Thus far, no studies have assessed how individuals with ASD use a chatbot to address issues related to mental health.

With a high prevalence of ASD (1), access to affordable and accessible interventions is needed. CA's have shown promise in increasing the accessibility and affordability of mental health resources. However, there are no studies showing what users share about ASD with a mental health chatbot. More specifically, this study will aim to (1) identify common themes of conversations related to ASD of all users, with and without ASD, interacting with a mental health CA; (2) common themes of conversations from individuals that self-identify as having ASD interacting with a mental health CA; (3) identify the most frequent emotion words individuals with ASD utilize when interacting with the CA; and (4) identify the most frequent life challenges individuals with ASD select from a CA for mental health.

The current study utilized retrospective data on users of a mental health chatbot and was determined non-human subject research by the Institutional Review Board (FWA00010885).

Two thematic analyses were conducted with the messages provided by the users. The first thematic analysis was done with the messages of the general users (sample 1), including the keywords (e.g., ASD, autism, Asperger), and aimed to identify common themes of conversations related to ASD. Messages that were labeled “unclear messages” or included “typos” were excluded from the analysis. The second thematic analysis was conducted with the messages of users that self-identified as having ASD (sample 2). The procedures for the thematic analyses followed the guidelines suggested by Braun and Clarke (44). The authors read the messages multiple times to familiarize themselves with the content. An initial list of preliminary codes were written, then researchers went through the data to verify the relevance of the potential themes. After consensus, a final set of major themes and subthemes were identified. The final list of themes and definitions were provided to independent and blind coders. Codes were assigned to each message, and the interrater reliability was calculated using Cohen's Kappa.

Emotion words were combined by valence (negative, positive, and ambivalent), and the negative valence words were split into four themes (depression, anger, anxiety, and other). Descriptive statistics were analyzed for the most frequent emotion words, themes, and valence and for the frequency of life challenges.

Individuals with ASD face several obstacles to accessing treatment (5, 6). The advancement of technological resources, such as CA's, has provided an opportunity to increase access and help mitigate barriers to mental health resources (9, 14). However, there has been a limited number of studies utilizing CA's for individuals with ASD, a few studies on social skills (28–30), one on job interviewing skills (31), and one on ASD assessment (32). Most studies on CA's for individuals with ASD have small sample sizes and do not assess the themes of their conversations. Understanding the conversations that users have about ASD with a mental health CA can help tailor the needs of mental health chatbots toward the ASD population.

When analyzing the conversations related to ASD of the general users (thematic analysis #1), the most relevant themes were “others having ASD”, “ASD diagnosis”, and “seeking help for ASD”. “Others having ASD” was the most frequent topic, which addressed user's experiences with people in their lives with ASD. Some of these messages showed concern (e.g., “I'm really concerned about my autistic brother”) or empathy towards those with ASD (e.g., “everyone keeps talking bad about my friend that happens to have autism”), while other messages expressed the user's feelings about someone in their life with ASD (e.g., “my brother has autism and is right now very difficult to deal with. it is causing me and my mom a lot of stress”). This particular theme is expected as stress in relatives, as well as caregiver strain of individuals with ASD is well documented in research (46, 47). Another theme with considerable frequency was “ASD diagnosis,” where most users reported concerns about having ASD themselves or experiencing symptoms. A minor portion of users were explicitly seeking help (e.g., “I am struggling to deal with my son's autism diagnosis, how can you help?”) or asking for tools or resources (e.g., "do you have anything for autistic people to do"). These messages are consistent with the high stress experienced by individuals and families of those with ASD (46, 48, 49), and demonstrate how they share their emotions, and seek help from a mental health CA.

The second thematic analysis was conducted with 232 users that self-identified as having ASD and met the inclusion criteria. The most frequent theme was “ASD diagnosis or symptoms,” followed by “negative reaction from others,” and “positive comments.” The ASD diagnosis or symptoms theme included four subthemes. The most frequent subtheme was “distress about ASD” which reflected the burden that individuals with ASD experience (e.g., “i have autism that i don't understand fully yet”). Congruent with this subtheme, some users expressed aversion to having ASD (e.g., “I wish i wasn't autistic”). Altogether, these two subthemes highlight the need to develop chatbot resources to help alleviate the distress some individuals with ASD experience and, if appropriate, help them accept and perceive ASD in a more adaptive way. Another subtheme indicated that some users felt comfortable “disclosing their diagnosis” to a mental health CA. Given that previous studies have indicated that individuals with ASD are generally reluctant to disclose their diagnosis due to stigma and perceived negative outcomes (50), this finding highlights the potential benefit of chatbots as a mental health resource for the ASD community. Previous studies on chatbots for mental health have reported that some users felt that the chatbot would not judge them (26). Thus, it is possible that some users with ASD felt the CA would not judge them and experience less stigma associated with talking to a chatbot compared to a human.

“Negative reaction from others” was the second most frequent theme disclosed by individuals self-identified as having ASD. The negative reactions included “feeling misunderstood,” “social problems,” “rejection of diagnosis by others,” “being bullied,” and “abuse.” Overall, these negative reactions by the social environment of individuals with ASD have been documented in the literature. Individuals with ASD often have difficulties understanding those without ASD and vice versa, which is known as the double empathy problem (51). The double empathy problem underlines the communication barrier that may occur between those with ASD and those without, often making it difficult to connect through shared experiences or empathize with one another (51).

Additionally, individuals with ASD tend to be at a higher risk of being bullying victims than typically developing peers (52–54). Regarding abuse, those with ASD have been found to be more susceptible to abuse instances (55), 18.5% of children with ASD have been physically abused, and 16.6% have been sexually abused (56).

There were a few messages that expressed positive experiences within the context of ASD (e.g., “I have a good few musicians to relate to because, like myself, they are also autistic. this makes me feel proud to be me”). While these types of messages sound encouraging, they were the exception rather than the norm. Understanding the characteristics of these users with a positive attitude toward their condition may help inform strategies and understand protective factors for other users.

The emotion words of the users who self-identified as having ASD were also analyzed. Most emotion words had a negative valence, and few emotion words were positive or ambivalent. This is consistent with themes observed in the messages sent by individuals self-identifying as having ASD. The most frequent theme within the negative valence words was depression, followed by anxiety, anger, and other. Further, for depression, the most frequent words were hopeless, sad, and tired; for anxiety, they were anxious, scared, and worried. These findings are consistent with the struggles of individuals with ASD who experience increased emotional dysregulation (57), higher depression (58, 59), symptoms of anxiety (60), and lower positive well-being (61). Thus, future chatbot developments for individuals with ASD should include strategies for emotional regulation.

Similar to the findings of the message themes, there was a minor portion of positive valence words. The most frequently mentioned positive valence words were good, better, and happy. However, the positive valence words represent less than 15% of the emotion words reported. This can be explained by the higher rates of distress reported by individuals with ASD (62) and the type of conversations the chatbot yields. As with most therapeutic approaches, the chatbot, Wysa, focuses more on the problems that users are experiencing rather than asking about the positive aspects of their life. Although this is a common practice among therapists and chatbots, it may be important to incorporate more aspects from positive psychology to mental health chatbots to promote greater well-being in general and, in particular, for those with ASD.

Energy and sleep was the most frequently selected cluster of life challenges, followed by stress and anxiety, low mood and depression, self-esteem, relationships, trauma and loss, and life events. These findings are consistent with sleep difficulties commonly endorsed by individuals with ASD (63, 64). Additionally, these findings highlight the high comorbidity of anxiety and depression with ASD (65, 66). To note, individuals with ASD are more likely to experience depression and anxiety symptoms compared to typically developing individuals (67). Thus, CA's for individuals with ASD should include tools for coping with anxiety and depression.

It is important to note that most of the results reported in this study could have been impacted by specific features and designs of the Wysa app. For example, life challenges were selected from a specific list that Wysa provided to all users. Therefore, further research should be conducted to determine the generalizability of the current findings for the ASD population. Additionally, collaboration with individuals with ASD on developing an app to meet their specific needs could produce more generalizable findings for the ASD population.

The major limitation of the current study is the lack of demographic characteristics. While this is an important limitation, the lack of demographic information is due to the CA not collecting this data to protect users' confidentiality. Most digital therapeutics available in the market tend not to collect demographic information in order to ensure user privacy. However, this limits their ability to understand the population they serve and who benefits the most from their products. Researchers partnering with the industry should encourage their partners to collect demographic data, and future studies should include this data in their reports.

Another major limitation is that this study relied on users self-identifying as having ASD, and there was no external validation of the diagnosis. It is possible that some users who self-identified as meeting the criteria for ASD, in fact, did not hold or qualify for a diagnosis; therefore, the outcomes reported in this study should be used with caution. Future studies should include some level of external validation of the diagnosis. Additionally, as noted in prior studies (68), individuals who self-identify as having ASD while interacting with platforms such as chatbots may not be representative of the general population of individuals with ASD.

A third limitation of this study is the lack of context of the messages sent by users to the chatbot. When analyzing messages, the researchers did not have access to the full conversation exchanged between the user and the chatbot. Due to this, several messages were coded as unclear, even though they contained the keywords for this study. Future studies should consider the full conversational exchange between users and chatbots to allow for better understanding and context of the messages. Similarly, the emotion words were extracted from the messages without the context of the conversation. Thus, their interpretation should also be exercised with caution.

Finally, most of the data reported in the current study are qualitative. While qualitative data may help understand the needs of individuals with ASD, there is a need for quantitative data showing (a) how users that identify as having ASD utilize Wysa compared to individuals without ASD, and (b) assessing the efficacy of Wysa.

The current study shows that users were open to disclosing their diagnosis, experiences, challenges, and emotions surrounding ASD, to a mental health chatbot designed for the general population. The most frequent conversations from general users were about others having ASD, ASD diagnosis, and seeking help for ASD. Furthermore, the conversations of those that self-identified as having ASD refer to their diagnosis, negative reactions from others, and a few positive comments about ASD. The majority of the emotion words were related to negative emotions, such as depression, anxiety, and anger. Overall, these themes highlight the potential of mental health CA's to discuss ASD-related topics with their users and become a source of help. Thus, there is a need to create mental health chatbots that are tailored to meet the unique needs of those with ASD.