With 1,487 species globally and over a fifth of them in Africa, bats have been indicated to play a significant role in the provision of ecosystem services (Burgin et al., 2018; Simmons and ALC, 2025). Such services include pest control, pollination, and seed dispersal among others benefiting both plant and animal populations (Kunz et al., 2011; McCracken et al., 2012; Mainea and Boylesa, 2015; Ramírez-Fráncel et al., 2022). These ecosystem services have significant implications for the socioeconomic aspects of human welfare and can influence decisions on their conservation interventions (Low et al., 2021; Aggrey et al., 2024a). The benefits associated with bats are substantial and globally reported, contributing significantly to human livelihoods (Aggrey et al., 2024a). For instance, in North America, bats predate on agricultural pests, saving costs of up to $3.7 billion per year (Boyles et al., 2011). Similarly, surveys in Texas indicated an annual value of $741,000 per year for pest control services provided by bats (Cleveland et al., 2006). In Chile, bats yield an economic value of US$188 to $248 per hectare per year due to their predation services (Rodríguez-San Pedro et al., 2020). In Indonesia, bats significantly reduce pest infestation on cacao trees, leading to higher productivity (Maas et al., 2013). Experiments around South African macadamia farms showed that bats can reduce tortricid moth damage by more than 35% (Bouarakia et al., 2023). These contributions to pest control and agricultural productivity are crucial for human livelihoods and can positively shape people’s perceptions regarding bats as well as their conservation. Such positive attitudes towards bats can yield significant conservation outcomes across different scales. Indeed, studies have shown that community-led conservation programming has a higher chance of being successful compared to those that have limited community engagement (Brooks et al., 2013). However, for such success to be effectively realized, opportunities like willingness to pay for conservation ought to be understood so as to limit costs of the interventions (Esmail et al., 2023). Such opportunities have been demonstrated in Greece and Mauritius, where residents valued bats and indicated monetary and labor contributions to support their conservation (Chandr Jaunky et al., 2021; Liordos et al., 2021). This partly contributed to sustaining the bat populations within these areas. Measuring such values attached to bats (across different scales) is critical, as it provides an improved understanding of pathways to influence societal change, public policies, and decision-making (Ferrato et al., 2016). It’s also critical to undertake such assessments across different scales as perceptions and values of bats are often shaped by socioeconomic factors that are highly context dependent (Sen, 1999). Such context dependency can cause heterogeneity in the conservation interventions across space and time.

The occurrence of zoonotic diseases has increased recently, necessitating enhanced and strategic public health communication to mitigate related impacts (Decker et al., 2012; Quinn et al., 2014; Holmes, 2022; Vora et al., 2022). While these interventions are critical in safeguarding human populations, they can sometimes undermine conservation efforts for vertebrate taxa (e.g., bats) that have been associated with certain diseases (Davis et al., 2017; MacFarlane and Rocha, 2020; Osofsky et al., 2023). For instance, the recent COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated negative attitudes towards bats (Ejotre et al., 2022; Nanni et al., 2022), which has detrimental implications for community support for bat conservation actions in some areas. Notably, community members will have less morale to support actions that contribute to restoring and, or sustaining bat populations as evidenced in Nigeria (Adeyanju et al., 2023) and New York (Siemer et al., 2021). Because such perspectives are highly context-dependent, i.e., vary across space and time (Olko and Radding, 2024), it is crucial to analyze community perspectives (in hard to reach areas like Mount Elgon) regarding such species to understand potential barriers to bat conservation (Geijzendorffer et al., 2017; Christie et al., 2020). Such analysis contributes information that can be used to design interventions to sustain ecosystems across different scales, as bats occupy wide ecological niches (Denzinger and Schnitzler, 2013; Ramírez-Fráncel et al., 2022; Dai et al., 2023). This is particularly relevant in Uganda, where agriculture is the main source of livelihood and involves the conversion of natural habitats into farmland, posing serious consequences for bat populations (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2014; Frick et al., 2020).

To halt or reverse threats to bat populations, adequate scientific and location-specific assessments should be conducted (Frick et al., 2020). Unfortunately, such assessments are yet to be conducted, especially in developing countries, including Uganda. This gap needs to be filled, as Uganda’s location within the tropics would be ideal for a high diversity of bats (Brown, 2014). This is reflected in a recent modeling study indicating Uganda to lie within a belt of high bat diversity and abundance (Alves et al., 2018). Similarly, anecdotal records indicate new species of bats that continue to be discovered in different parts of Uganda reflecting the potential of various ecosystems in sustaining bat populations. This study aimed to contribute to the design of interventions to sustain bat populations by assessing perspectives regarding bats and willingness to pay for their conservation.

In terms of sociodemographic characteristics, all respondents lived and worked in the area and indicated to have bats in their neighborhood. In terms of gender, the male and female respondents engaged were almost equal ( Table 1 ). Regarding education levels, the majority of respondents had completed secondary level education ( Table 1 ). Crop cultivation was the most common work done within the study site ( Table 1 ). In comparison to the total population of the site, most respondents were at primary level (57%) indicating lower education levels within the study site. Similarly, crop cultivation was the main source of livelihood with 70% of the respondents engaged in it ( Table 1 ).

This study indicated respondents had a positive attitude towards bats and environmental aspects that would undermine population of these mammals. They were also knowledgeable about some aspects of bats and were willing to contribute for their conservation. The positive attitude towards bats can be attributed to the values that people derive from these mammals either directly or indirectly. Such values can be linked to the entire ecosystem that provides opportunities (directly and indirectly) for accessing key livelihood assets. For instance, the respondents in this study noted bats to contribute guano for enhancing soil fertility. Others also indicated bats to consume pests for crops, livestock contributing to food availability. These are critical values that can support food production systems sustaining human populations. Indeed, over three quarters of the respondents in the study area practiced small scale agriculture as the main source of livelihood. This livelihood strategy relies heavily on the health of ecosystems across different scales (Power, 2010; Richardson, 2010; Frison et al., 2011; White et al., 2021; Crespin et al., 2023). Therefore, ecological imbalances would severely undermine the livelihood strategies employed by communities within such areas prompting for interventions for sustainability. For instance, climate change has been shown to severely affect agriculture through drought, pests and diseases among others (Javadinejad et al., 2021; Kim and Lee, 2023). Such incidences undermine food security and other welfare assets of communities driving them to explore interventions (e.g., nature based solutions) to sustain their livelihoods (Sonneveld et al., 2018; Aggrey et al., 2024b; Dunlop et al., 2024). Therefore, the positive attitudes attached to bats directly and indirectly in this study indicates the value that communities attach to this mammalian group. Similar results have been obtained in other areas like the Battambang Province in the northwest of Cambodia (Shapiro et al., 2021). Notably, respondents had a positive attitude towards cave roosting bats. This was attributed to the benefits that people associated with bats e.g., hunting them for meat, provision of guano etc (Shapiro et al., 2021). While the study site of Battambang Province in the northwest of Cambodia may not be similar to the one for our study, such results provide opportunities for enhancing conservation programming within communities. This is critical in the current era of emerging and remerging infectious diseases with the potential of fueling bat persecution (Lu et al., 2021). Indeed, this has been evidenced in northern parts of Uganda calling for interventions to educate the public about how to live safely with bats (Ejotre et al., 2022). However, while such negative attitudes are increasing because of diseases traced to bats, there is still an opportunity to raise awareness which has been shown to be effective in enhancing positive attitudes towards bats. This has been demonstrated by Bosco and colleagues indicating informational stimuli to increase the positive attitudes towards bats (Boso et al., 2021; Ejotre et al., 2022).

In terms of knowledge of bats, respondents had poor knowledge of these mammals in terms of being environmental indicators, their vulnerability to environmental degradation and their ecological roles e.g., seed dispersal. However, some were knowledgeable on some aspects of the mammalian group. Notably, some respondents indicated bats to support seed dispersal and forest regeneration. Additionally, some indicated bats inhabit caves and trees and are vulnerable to environmental degradation. This discrepancy can be associated with poor access to information regarding the biology and ecological aspects of bats. This result is similar to that obtained in Southwestern parts of Uganda indicating community members have poor knowledge of the public health threats associated with bats (Ninsiima et al., 2024). Similarly, a study in the northern parts of the country showed varied knowledge regarding bats e.g., physical features, biology among others (Ejotre et al., 2022). Meanwhile, elsewhere in countries like Mauritius, it has been shown that community members have poor understanding of the reproductive biology of bats (Chandr Jaunky et al., 2021). Access to information regarding bats would not only improve the community understanding of mammalian group but also enhance positive attitudes (Boso et al., 2021; Ejotre et al., 2022). This would support conservation planning across different scales contributing to sustainability.

Regarding the willingness to pay for bat conservation, respondents indicated monetary contributions that they would make to support conservation actions for bats. This value was equivalent to 0.4% of the median monthly household income for the Elgon region as per the previous household census conducted within this area (UBOS, 2021). Similarly, comparing this bid amount to the monthly consumption expenditure per household in rural areas of Eastern Uganda equated to 0.3% (UBOS, 2021). This value thus reflects potential of enhancing bat conservation within Mount Elgon Biosphere Reserve. While this result may have been improved with integration of man hours (labor contributions), it provides a useful understanding of the value that community members attach to bats. Such value attached to bats can be driven by the livelihood assets derived from the mammalian group e.g., guano, sociocultural and spiritual benefits among others. These benefits are widespread across different communities and vary across space and time (Aggrey et al., 2024a). This is also partly reflected in the level of knowledge and the attitudes towards bats as revealed in this study. In relation to other studies, the result obtained in this study is similar to that obtained in Mauritius reflecting potential of community participation in bat conservation (Chandr Jaunky et al., 2021). Notably, community members indicated a monetary contribution to support conservation of Mauritian flying fox. This was associated with the better knowledge about bats and higher aesthetic value the communities attach to bats (Chandr Jaunky et al., 2021). In our study, results indicated education level and household size to be significantly associated with willingness to pay for conservation of bats. Specifically, lower education levels and smaller household sizes positively influenced willingness to pay for conservation of bats. In general, this result reflects the effects of sociodemographic factors in influencing bat conservation programming. Notably, education levels can have a bearing on the level of understanding of the values of bats. People who have spent their life working in a natural setting and observing the benefits provided by bats instead of pursuing higher education were more inclined to support bat conservation, as opposed to people who have become more disconnected from spending time in nature. This consequently influences attitudes regarding such species. This has been evidenced in Greece with community members’ willingness to pay for bat conservation influenced by education among other factors (Liordos et al., 2021). Notably, community members with lower education levels were more willing to support bat conservation compared to those with higher education levels. Conversely, a study in Nigeria indicated community members with higher education levels to value the bats more compared to those with lower education (Adeyanju et al., 2023). While there maybe differences in the contexts between existing studies and ours, the results elucidate the role of education and local traditional knowledge in bat conservation. Our study contradicts the general expectation that higher education levels improve understanding of the values and increase motivations to pay for its conservation. This can be associated with the recent occurrences of diseases associated with these mammals fueling negative attitudes towards its conservation. This has recently been evidenced in Northern parts of Uganda (Ejotre et al., 2022). Although not significant, years lived in the area was associated with willingness to pay for bat conservation. This can be explained by the improved knowledge of the existing natural resources and their value especially during limited alternative resources (Boafo et al., 2016; Abdullah and Khan, 2023). Similar result has been indicated in a study conducted in Mauritius indicating age of the respondents to be significantly associated with willingness to pay for bat conservation (Chandr Jaunky et al., 2021). Additionally, in Greece, older persons were noted to be willing to pay for bat conservation (Liordos et al., 2021). Regarding gender, while there was no significant association with willingness to pay for bat conservation, there was a positive relationship. This result is similar to that in the Mauritius study that indicated gender to have a positive influence on bat conservation by community members (Chandr Jaunky et al., 2021). This result is also similar to that obtained on Mexican free tailed bat that indicated females to be willing to pay for its conservation (Haefele et al., 2018). These factors provide avenues for leveraging human dimensions of bat conservation with Mount Elgon region of Uganda.

This study indicated willingness to pay for bat conservation within Mount Elgon Biosphere Reserve of Uganda. Education level and household size were the key factors associated with the willingness to pay. Years lived in the area also had a positive influence on the willingness to pay for bat conservation. While this study could have been improved with integration of methods for analyzing man hours that respondents maybe willing to contribute, it provides an understanding of how communities are willing to engage in bat conservation programming. Future conservation programs targeting bats are thus likely to succeed in this area given the positive attitudes associated with these mammals. We recommend longitudinal studies to explicitly understand contributions of communities to bat conservation while analyzing factors associated with such contributions. This should be done in different areas of Uganda as well as Africa and the globe so as to support conservation programs targeting this mammalian group. Lastly, education programs on the values of bats as well as ways of living safely with these creatures should be initiated within this region. Such education programs should integrate community members of different education levels.