Climate change and the loss of plant diversity are two major challenges in the modern era. Climate change is a primary factor contributing to the decline in plant diversity, along with human activities. Global climate forecasts indicate that the frequency and intensity of climatic phenomena will escalate over time. This includes an anticipated rise in heat waves, droughts, unpredictable wildfires, severe rainfall, and floods (Crowley, 2000; Alley et al., 2007; Alfonso et al., 2021; Tebaldi et al., 2021; Zandalinas et al., 2021). These climate-related occurrences are exerting an adverse influence on human society and livelihoods, as well as natural ecosystems globally (Bergholt and Lujala, 2012; Gray and Mueller, 2012; Vermeulen et al., 2012; McMichael, 2013; Fang et al., 2019; Schleuning et al., 2020).

Biodiversity plays a critical role in sustaining different life forms on Earth, including humans, and without it, humans cannot maintain the healthy ecosystems on which they rely to provide ecological services such as clean air, food, medicine, and natural aesthetics. Extinction is an inherent occurrence in the Earth’s historical timeline. Nevertheless, the present rates of extinction are projected to be at least 1000 times higher than the average rate in the past, which gives rise to apprehensions regarding the potential occurrence of a sixth mass extinction event before the conclusion of this century (Pimm et al., 2014; Proença and Pereira, 2017; Grusin, 2018; Jepson, 2019; Romshoo et al., 2020). Natural disturbances such as seasonal changes that cause plant and invertebrate populations to rise or fall, wildfires, floods, and volcanic eruptions, as well as anthropogenic disturbances and climate change, are among the leading causes of biodiversity loss (Powers and Jetz, 2019; Ritchie and Roser, 2021). Furthermore, overexploitation of wildlife for wood, food, medicine, commercial, ornamental, and cultural purposes threatens and leads to the extinction of many species (Thuiller et al., 2019; de Souza and Prevedello, 2020; Caro et al., 2022). Climate events have different effects on individual organisms and entire ecosystems. Several studies indicate a significant decrease in the population of bryophyte species in forests due to increased fire and drought occurrences. Additionally, the loss of soil microbial diversity has disrupted the crucial soil microbial structures necessary for plant growth (Dubey et al., 2019; Viles and Cutler, 2012; Rillig et al., 2019; Pereira et al., 2021).

The 2015 Paris Agreement represents a significant turning point in the worldwide endeavor to address climate change. However, there are intricate and diverse challenges that need to be overcome, such as the difficulty of restricting global warming to a maximum of 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, as well as the issue of financing. These obstacles have persisted for more than eight years and multiple Conference of Parties (COP) meetings (Kuyper and Schroeder, 2018). The National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) serve as crucial tools for integrating biodiversity and executing conservation strategies on a national scale (Sarkki et al., 2016). However, implemented measures in most countries and regions have not been effective enough to halt the loss of original biological diversity. Many habitats are still degraded, and unless more effective and far-reaching measures are implemented, more species will become endangered or extinct in the near future (Auvinen et al., 2007). Furthermore, most national NBSAPs lack explicit biodiversity goals, resulting in limited contributions to biodiversity conservation (Wu et al., 2019; Tong, 2020).

Given all of these challenges, the only viable option is to employ a variety of strategies. For example, the CBD is currently working on the adoption of the post-2020 global biodiversity framework, a new plan to protect biological diversity. Annual Conference of Parties (COP) meetings, on the other hand, are held to devise countermeasures to climate change. Additionally, massive investment in research and development to create innovative green technologies that are dependable, accessible, and can be implemented regardless of geographical constraints is another option that is being pursued. However, it is impossible to predict when such game-changing technologies will be available, as well as their global accessibility, including cost and scalability.

By 2030, the post-2020 global biodiversity conservation framework mandates that protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures must cover a minimum of 30% of the Earth's surface. This worldwide initiative, known as “30-by-30,” is a global campaign with specific targets that aims to designate 30% of Earth’s land and marine areas as protected areas by 2030 ( Box 1 ). This review wholeheartedly endorses this bold endeavor, as it encompasses a highly ambitious strategy to preserve natural ecosystems. Additionally, it serves as a protective measure to minimize the impact of climate change and expedite the attainment of goals related to biodiversity conservation and climate before the year 2050. This review equally focuses on how, despite recent advances in plant tissue culture technology, it is potentially underutilized in plant conservation efforts, thus, advocating for its unabated implementation to achieve the 30-by-30 terrestrial biome targets for plant diversity protection and conservation ( Figure 1 , Box 1 ).

The objective of this review is to underscore the persistent difficulties faced by climate change and biodiversity conservation policies and to stress the necessity of a globally coordinated Kew-Wide Mechanism (KWM) that is executed at the country level ( Figure 2 ). The conservation of biodiversity confronts a myriad of challenges, driven by anthropogenic activities such as unsustainable land use, deforestation, and illicit wildlife trade, exacerbated by the impacts of climate change. Without the adoption of the 30-by-30 framework, these challenges are expected to rapidly worsen, rendering traditional biodiversity conservation approaches increasingly ineffective. This rapid escalation could potentially make existing conventional conservation methods obsolete, highlighting the critical need for innovative approaches to preserving the Earth's flora, among other natural resources. Plant tissue culture technology emerges as a promising solution for plant conservation, yet its global application remains limited. This study introduces the KWM architecture, which integrates plant tissue culture technology as a pivotal conservation tool to address the plant-related objectives of the 30-by-30 post-2020 global biodiversity conservation agenda. By incorporating plant tissue culture technology, the KWM architecture represents a pioneering global plant conservation policy framework, offering a novel approach to safeguarding global plant diversity amidst 21st-century challenges and presenting a viable alternative to conventional conservation strategies.

The literature review process for this study began in 2022 and concluded in 2024. We conducted a literature review using keywords from the Google Scholar database to identify potential studies. Google Scholar is an openly accessible web search engine that catalogs the complete text of academic literature from various publishing formats and fields of study. A wider and more varied selection of publications, including published articles, preprints, theses, books, and court opinions, forms the basis of Google Scholar counts. In addition, Google Scholar offers a broader selection of resources for non-journal content, including PDF files, Word documents, technical reports, theses, and dissertations.

Google Scholar is quite similar to Google in that it automatically places AND between words, quotes, sentences, or titles and searches for alternative terms using OR, with the terms contained in parenthesis. We generated the search string using the Google Scholar filter tool, which resulted in a search outcome that reflected the diverse nature of the database compared to other platforms. On Google Scholar, we used an approach that involved running multiple searches and modifying our keywords with each search. We also employed a citation mining method, also known as ‘Pearl Growing’ or ‘Snowballing’, to conduct an opportunistic search of relevant literature. Citation mining is an efficient method of looking for relevant articles. Stage one involves identifying an article that meets the inclusion criteria. During the second stage, more pertinent articles are identified through the examination of reference lists. We achieved this by conducting a comprehensive search in both the ‘retrospective’ direction, which involves examining the papers referenced by the article of interest, and the ‘prospective’ direction, which involves identifying any papers that have cited the article of interest. We kept repeating this process until we couldn't find any more relevant articles. This approach combines reference tracking and citation tracking. In this review, we used ‘citation mining’ as a supplemental approach to further extend the literature search (Wohlin, 2016; Mourão et al., 2020; Wohlin et al., 2022). This is because reviews are more likely to be relevant to a wide range of end users if they draw from a diverse range of experiences in terms of both the subject matter and the approach used (Lasserson et al., 2019).

Given the broad theme, scope, and issues addressed in this review study, we ultimately utilized a mixed method to search the literature. In the first phase, we specified our study scope: climate change, mitigation, and problems; biodiversity, specifically plant diversity; global and regional conservation policies; and challenges encountered. We also focused on the advancements and potential applications of plant tissue culture technology. Secondly, we defined our search criteria and used both the basic and advanced filters of Google Scholar to find publications that featured these terms throughout the entire text, published within the last eight years, except for a few exceptions ( Figures 3A, B ). In summary, our search process combined the aforementioned concepts with appropriate synonyms. We produced 50 to 100 or more articles, depending on the search field, and then conducted a thorough screening to find the best match that aligned with the main idea and purpose of our review content. Thirdly, we limited our search to at least 85% peer-reviewed articles, with the remaining 15% coming from institutional websites, web-based searches, and non-peer-reviewed articles like conference papers, technical reports, theses, and even proceedings that were pertinent to and consistent with the main themes of this review. When necessary, we periodically conducted supplementary literature searches through online databases and relevant organizational websites to ensure a comprehensive review of the existing research (Briscoe, 2018). After screening article titles and abstracts to identify those that addressed the selected themes, we thoroughly read the chosen papers. We ultimately selected about 325 articles and works, using more than 180 of them as references in this review article.

Fourth, we read the roughly 325 documents that made it past the initial screening and categorized them according to the research topics listed below: “biodiversity loss” (56 articles), “biodiversity conservation methods” (15 articles), “CITES” (41 articles), “climate denial” (8 articles), “climate-driven extinction of species” (12 articles), “climate policy” (41 articles), “conservation policy” (20 articles), “extinction” (31 articles), “global warming” (6 articles), “impacts of climate change” (33 articles), “IPCC projections” (9 articles), “Kew Gardens models” (3 articles), “limitations of current conservation approaches” (20 articles), “lower plants and threats to biodiversity” (17 articles), “plant tissue culture and quality planting materials” (27 articles), “soil microbiome” (18 articles), “post-2020 framework for biodiversity conservation” (5 articles), and “role of plant tissue culture” (25 articles) ( Figure 3A ). One study could be assigned to a single topic area, several subject areas, or none at all. All the studies were in English.

A conservation policy aims to save or restore a declining species, community, ecosystem, or natural or semi-natural site (Meinard, 2017). The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) are the primary global institutions that work at the highest levels to inform global and national policies that promote biodiversity conservation, restoration, and sustainable management ( Box 4 ). Both institutions have successfully marshaled global nature conservation policy over the past decades, but the sheer magnitude of the objectives and targets still hampers their efforts ( Box 4 ).

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) was signed by representatives from 80 countries in Washington, DC, on 3 March 1973, and entered into force on 1 July 1975 (Norton, 2018). There are currently 183 parties to the Convention. The Convention is an international agreement between governments established as a response to growing concerns that the overexploitation of wildlife through international trade contributed to the rapid decline of many species of plants and animals worldwide (Morton et al., 2021; Scheffers et al., 2019). Today, it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 35,000 species of animals and plants, whether they are traded as live specimens, fur coats or dried herbs (Robinson and Sinovas, 2018) ( Box 5 ).

Wildlife trade across most sectors has increased since monitoring began, for example, between 1996 and 2018 the global fish market rose from $40 billion to $180 billion, wood from $65 billion to $137 billion and reptile leather for fashion trade from $140 million to $600 million. In concert, the annual number of trades legally traded through CITES has also grown, from under 5000 transactions in 1977 to peaking at over 1.3 million in 2015, with shipment size increasing in parallel and seizures of illegally traded species showing similar trends (Harfoot et al., 2018).

Balancing the needs of people for livelihood generation, especially with access and benefit-sharing rights, with the impact on species survival remains difficult ( Table 2 ). Issues like the role of trophy and sports hunting within conservation remain a topic of debate in the conservation community. Identifying strategies that ensure long-term species survival, promote equity, and sustain livelihoods is an ongoing challenge (‘t Sas-Rolfes et al., 2019).

Despite scientific evidence that biodiversity loss is a prominent, serious, and pervasive global issue, humanity’s response has fallen short (Evans, 2021; Rands et al., 2010). Conservation efforts have advanced significantly over time, beginning with the enactment of the first species-protection laws in the nineteenth century. This progression continued with the establishment of the first national park in the mid-twentieth century, followed by the implementation of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity and the development of national biodiversity strategies (Ibisch, 2005). The national biodiversity strategies and action plans (NBSAPs) under the Convention on Biological Diversity serve as key mechanisms for integrating biodiversity considerations into national policies (Sarkki et al., 2016). Overall, the action plan has facilitated global discussions on the importance of biodiversity protection, leading to varying degrees of positive attitudes toward nature conservation. However, in many countries and regions, the measures implemented have been insufficient or ineffective in curbing the continued loss of biological diversity ( Figure 8 ). Numerous habitats remain significantly degraded, and without more robust and extensive interventions, additional species are at risk of becoming endangered or facing extinction in the near future (Auvinen et al., 2007).

The establishment of protected areas is the most common in-situ conservation strategy in most countries around the world, followed by the implementation of various ex-situ conservation and management strategies for the conservation of wild species, such as nurseries, botanical gardens, zoos, germplasm banks, aquariums, species reproduction and rehabilitation centres (Attuaquayefio and Folib, 2005; Khuroo et al., 2020; Le Saout et al., 2013; Mestanza-Ramón et al., 2020; Oseni et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2021). However, conflicts between conservation efforts and local livelihoods, as well as between broader and more localized interests, are an inherent aspect of many conservation initiatives globally (Chhatre and Saberwal, 2005; Verma and Mohammad, 2020) ( Boxes 6 , 7 ).

Most NBSAPs at the national level lack explicit biodiversity goals, resulting in limited contributions to biodiversity conservation (Wu et al., 2019; Tong, 2020). In some cases, ineffective regulatory policies stifle international collaboration (Mason et al., 2020). Moreover, PAs are frequently understaffed, underfunded and poorly managed (Mestanza-Ramón et al., 2020; Selig et al., 2014). Issues with responsibility allocation create a divide between environmental management and other critical policy sectors (Martin et al., 2013; Meng and Li, 2022; Young et al., 2014). In conservation planning, there is often inadequate integration of biodiversity and ecosystem services, coupled with ineffective monitoring that hampers the adaptive governance of environmental programmes. Additionally, there is a lack of stakeholder inclusion and insufficient mainstreaming of biodiversity (Sarkar et al., 2006; Strayer and Dudgeon, 2010; Tabarelli et al., 2005). Many conservation strategies also incorrectly assume that different taxonomic groups share congruent geographical patterns of diversity. Given that biodiversity is unevenly distributed, prioritization is crucial to minimize loss, yet this remains a significant challenge at the national level due to limited technical capabilities (Bolpagni et al., 2019; Brooks et al., 2006; Grenyer et al., 2006; Velasco et al., 2015).

While the terrestrial protected area status of only two countries (Cameroon and India) is explicitly examined here concerning the 30-by-30 targets and the challenges they face, this situation mirrors the broader global context. Approximately 80% of countries are similarly falling short of these targets, with only about 20% meeting them by default ( Figure 10 ) (World Bank Group, 2021). As a result, there is a pressing need for a new global mechanism to combat plant diversity loss and ensure effective implementation and attainment of the 30-by-30 targets before the 2050 deadline ( Figure 2 and Box 1 ).

Despite significant efforts in conservation, the 2010 Aichi targets have not been fully achieved. One of the primary obstacles is the inadequate formulation of national targets by many countries. This is compounded by inadequate investments, limited knowledge, and insufficient accountability in biodiversity conservation efforts (Xu et al., 2021). The interconnectedness of nature transcends geopolitical borders, underscoring the universal vulnerability to ecological crises and emphasizing the necessity for collective action. The 15th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD COP15) was held in Kunming to foster communication and consensus-building among participating nations. The objective was to devise a comprehensive Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework (Post-2020 GBF). This framework aims to guide biodiversity conservation efforts in the next decade and beyond, emphasizing collaborative measures to reverse the alarming trend of global biodiversity loss (Wei, 2021).

The post-2020 global biodiversity framework represents a crucial evolution from the preceding Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020. It delineates an ambitious strategy aiming to instigate widespread transformative action, fostering a profound shift in humanity’s relationship with biodiversity. The overarching objective is to realize the shared vision of coexisting harmoniously with nature by 2050. This framework seeks to mobilize urgent and transformative efforts from governments, inclusive of indigenous peoples, local communities, civil society, and businesses. By articulating its vision, mission, goals, and targets, the framework aspires to contribute substantially to the overarching objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity, its Protocols, and other pertinent biodiversity-focused multilateral agreements, processes, and instruments. The primary focus of implementation is at the national level, with supportive actions at the subnational, regional, and global tiers. The framework offers a comprehensive, outcome-oriented structure for formulating national and, where applicable, regional goals and targets. It emphasizes the need for periodic updates to national biodiversity strategies and action plans, facilitating ongoing monitoring and global-level progress assessment. Furthermore, the framework is designed to foster synergies and coordination across the Convention on Biological Diversity, its Protocols, and other pertinent processes, ensuring a unified and integrated approach towards global biodiversity conservation.

The proposed framework is a significant contribution to effectively realizing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The Sustainable Development Goals play a crucial role in establishing the necessary conditions for the framework’s successful implementation. The framework outlines four overarching long-term goals for 2050, aligning with the envisioned biodiversity vision for 2050. These goals are accompanied by ten milestones to be assessed by 2030, serving as critical indicators of progress. The framework comprises 21 action-oriented targets for immediate attention over the coming decade, outlining specific actions within each target that must be promptly initiated and conclusively accomplished by 2030. This concerted effort is anticipated to culminate in the achievement of the 2030 milestones and the realization of outcome-oriented goals for 2050, as articulated by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 2021). Table 3 provides a comprehensive overview of plant-related actions that hold the potential to significantly contribute to the attainment of the Global Biodiversity Framework 2030 targets.

Plant tissue culture is a well-established technique that has evolved through various stages, progressing from basic applications to more sophisticated methodologies, much like many other technological advancements (Abdin et al., 2017; Mosoh et al., 2024a, 2024b). Originally, plant tissue culture was employed as a research instrument to nurture and examine the growth of small, isolated portions of plant tissues or individual cells. By the mid-twentieth century, there was a widespread acceptance of the idea that plants could be regenerated or reproduced through callus or organ culture. This led to practical applications in the plant propagation sector (Idowu et al., 2009; Wojtania and Mieszczakowska-Frąc, 2021). Consequently, numerous commercial laboratories were built globally to facilitate the large-scale reproduction of horticultural plants through cloning (Mosoh et al., 2024b). Plant tissue culture applications have broadened significantly beyond traditional clonal propagation and micropropagation ( Figure 1 ). Common techniques now include somatic embryogenesis, somatic hybridization, synthetic seed technology, cryopreservation, protoplast fusion, plant medicine, and using bioreactors for large-scale mass clonal propagation. The value of these technologies goes beyond their application in large-scale cloning to encompass advanced molecular biology (genetic engineering, metabolic engineering, synthetic biology, advanced imaging technologies), plant improvement, bioprocessing, and, notably, conservation and the restoration of endangered plant species (Lynch, 1999; Chandana et al., 2018; Loyola-Vargas and Ochoa-Alejo, 2018; Khandel et al., 2022).

The decline in plant diversity is primarily caused by the combined effects of climate change and human activities, which result in rapid and substantial alterations in plant communities. The key drivers of this decline are changes in temperature, rainfall patterns, and evaporation rates, as well as an alarming increase in extreme weather events. However, the stochastic permutations and combinations of these events introduce uncertainty, resulting in outcomes that range from potential benefits, such as tropical expansion that could enhance diversity, to worst-case scenarios that could lead to further erosion of plant diversity (Ivetić and Devetaković, 2016; Velásquez et al., 2018).

An often-overlooked aspect of climate change is its impact on plant diseases and pests, which adversely affects the availability and quality of planting materials in both natural ecosystems and agricultural settings (Beckford and Norman, 2016; Delgado-Baquerizo et al., 2020a; Velásquez et al., 2018). Historical evidence indicates that favorable climatic conditions can lead to significant crop losses due to disease development. This observation can be similarly applied to plants in their natural habitats. Extensive literature explores how climate change may impact the prevalence and severity of plant diseases, the frequency of epidemics, and their geographical distribution in agriculture (Donatelli et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2020). Natural ecosystems, with their diverse species and intricate interactions, contrast markedly with the relatively simplistic structure and species composition of most agricultural environments. This complexity creates a multifaceted network of interactions between wild plants and pathogens, making it challenging to fully comprehend the implications for natural ecosystems and communities. The consequences could be more severe and troubling, potentially leading to cascading effects such as local extinction events caused by declines in host health, which can subsequently impact the composition and stability of entire plant communities. Moreover, humans exert significant influence over the scale and impact of pathogen populations in agriculture through practices such as selective breeding, agronomic techniques, nutrient and moisture management, and chemical treatments. However, in natural plant ecosystems, the application of these methods is neither feasible nor environmentally acceptable. As a result, our ability to mitigate alterations in these natural systems is significantly more constrained compared to agricultural environments (Burdon and Zhan, 2020; Malhi et al., 2021). Plant tissue culture technology, with its diverse applications, can complement traditional agriculture practices and control systems that are often unsuitable for wild plants in their natural ecosystems. Plant tissue culture technology offers more targeted strategies and effective solutions for conserving endangered plant species in their natural habitats (Mosoh et al., 2023).

In many countries, the current cultivation areas for fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants are likely to become insufficient to meet the demands of rapidly growing populations. Plant tissue culture technology, which is still underutilized in numerous regions, holds considerable promise for significantly enhancing productivity. Beyond agriculture and horticulture, plant tissue culture applications extend to diverse fields such as orchidology, forestry, medicinal plant production, and derived products, offering a wide range of benefits (Loyola-Vargas and Ochoa-Alejo, 2018). Commercially valuable plants are at significant risk of extinction due to overexploitation and the destruction of their natural habitats. Plant tissue culture applications have the potential to be highly effective in alleviating pressure on natural populations of medicinal and commercially important plants, thereby promoting their sustainable utilization (Yadav et al., 2012; Pant, 2013; Chandana et al., 2018). For instance, integrating traditional knowledge with modern plant tissue culture techniques offers a systematic and reliable approach to discovering new medicines and ensuring their sustainable production. This synergy enables cost-effective production through well-designed in vitro systems, such as bioreactors, reducing the need for unsustainable wild collection practices. Furthermore, developing countries are currently implementing climate change mitigation programmes in the forestry sector, including REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation). The “+” symbolizes the incorporation of conservation, sustainable forest management, and the enhancement of forest carbon stocks. However, the primary obstacle faced is the insufficient availability of high-quality planting stocks (Rawat et al., 2020).

The main obstacle encountered by afforestation projects and programmes globally is the scarcity of high-quality planting stocks. Access to superior planting materials can significantly enhance forest regeneration and restoration efforts. Therefore, ensuring the availability of high-quality planting stocks is crucial for boosting forest productivity. Plant tissue culture technology stands out as the most reliable method for addressing this challenge (Sudhersan et al., 2003; Tegen and Mohammed, 2016; Mulugo et al., 2020).

Box 8 offers a comprehensive overview of plant tissue culture (PTC), highlighting its crucial role in plant conservation. It highlights the advantages of PTC, such as the ability to produce large quantities of plants with desirable traits, rapid propagation, and genetic diversity preservation. However, it also acknowledges the associated challenges, including high costs, technical expertise requirements, genetic instability risks, and contamination potential.

The history of Kew Gardens dates back to the nineteenth century when conservation was not a matter of great concern as it is now in modern times. At the time, the primary motive for gathering rare plants was not conservation but rather trade and displaying a collection of rare and extinct species of plants in the wild (Prance, 2010). Over time, successive administrations at Kew Gardens expanded the collection, increasing its significance and introducing the concept of preserving its value through careful management and curation. Nowadays, many of the earlier collections of species are recorded as endangered by the IUCN. When environmental concerns began brewing up in the middle of the twentieth century, the focus of Kew Gardens started shifting towards conservation ( Figure 9 ). This evolution culminated in the creation of the Millennium Seed Bank, the world's largest collection of wild plant seeds. Over the years, Kew Gardens has increasingly embraced both ex-situ and in-situ conservation efforts, evolving into a hub not only for conservation but also for developing a sustainable economic model around these activities. This transformation has been supported by a robust research programme encompassing plant tissue culture technology, advanced laboratories, systematics, molecular genetics, a comprehensive herbarium, and an extensive library. Now, organizations such as the Threatened Plants Unit of IUCN and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) have their roots in Kew Gardens as well as other conservation initiatives namely; the wild trade monitoring network TRAFFIC (Trade Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce), CITES and Convention on Biodiversity (CBD).

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) is an initiative of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Kew Gardens is an active signatory to this programme (Cowell et al., 2022). At the XVI International Botanical Congress in St Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., in August, 1999, attended by over 5,000 botanists from all parts of the world, the recognition that two-thirds of plants are at risk of extinction by the end of the 21^st century, called for plant conservation to be recognized as an outstanding global priority in biodiversity conservation. In response to the Congress resolution, an ad hoc group drawn from major international and national organizations, institutions and other bodies involved in biodiversity conservation from 14 countries came together in Gran Canaria, Spain on 3–4 April, 2000 to consider the need for a global initiative for plant conservation. The group recognized the pressing need to create a Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) and its implementation programme within the framework of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. This strategic initiative aims to support and promote effective plant conservation efforts at all levels, as well as address the ongoing and unacceptable loss of plant diversity (Crane, 2000). At CBD COP-5 in 2000, a proposal was made to establish a Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) at COP-6. In 2002, during COP-6, the international community adopted the GSPC, marking the first instance of setting targets for biodiversity conservation. To support the national implementation of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC), the COP-7 in 2004 established the Global Partnership for Plant Conservation (GPPC). Today, the GPPC comprises over 50 institutions, organizations, and networks that run national, regional, and international plant conservation programmes. In 2010, GSPC targets were updated for 2020, taking into account progress that had already been made and adopted at COP-10, with a decision that implementation of the GSPC should be pursued as part of the broader framework of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 ( Table 4 ).

The GSPC highlights the importance of plants and the ecosystem services they provide for all life on Earth, and aims to ensure their conservation The vision of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) is encapsulated in the statement, “Without plants, there is no life. The functioning of the planet and our survival depend on plants. The Strategy seeks to halt the continuing loss of plant diversity.” The GSPC aims to halt the ongoing loss of plant diversity. Five main objectives guide the GSPC, which encompasses 16 specific targets for plant conservation, all aimed for achievement by 2020 and beyond (Dhanda et al., 2019) ( Table 4 ).

Mitigating and adapting to climate change entails substantial financial commitments for numerous countries. Governments worldwide face numerous political, sociocultural, and economic challenges, and as a result, trade-offs are frequently made at the expense of climate mitigation and adaptation measures ( Figure 8 ). There is no global harmonized framework for reporting climate-related risk, which allows for significant arbitrage, particularly in the private sector. There is a lack of ambition in the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and even when certain parties display ambition in their NDCs, the execution often falls below expectations at the national level. Climate funding remains inadequate and fails to meet the requirements for driving substantial transformation.

Renewables (such as solar, geothermal, and wind) make economic sense for only about 10 to 15% of the world’s countries. Climate projections for the twenty-first century are highly consistent across models and iterations of the IPCC assessment reports. However, because feedback loops are not discounted in these projections, current models should be regarded as conservative and lenient, because even if zero-emissions were hypothetically achievable immediately, it would take time for the feedback loops to subside before the true gains of a zero-emissions economy could be obtained. Given all of these challenges, it makes more sense to invest in cutting-edge green technologies that are scalable, accessible, and not geographically constrained.

Current conservation measures are marginally effective, but it appears to be a battle of attrition, given that drivers of plant diversity loss, such as climate change and unsustainable anthropogenic activities, are becoming more intense as the human population grows rapidly ( Figure 8 ). The mobilization of funds for conservation action is a major factor that can tip the balance in the right direction. The challenge, however, is that financing is still a major issue that will require a four-fold increase by 2050 (i.e. 133 billion USD annually based on 2020 but needs to be at least 536 billion USD annually by 2050). The insufficient allocation of funds to deter illegal trade in endangered wildlife species hinders the effectiveness of CITES, and the transition into and out of the blacklisting system is slow ( Table 2 ). The national biodiversity strategic action plan is poorly implemented in most countries, and it is generally not a priority due to the many competing interests for which the national budget is allocated. Unsustainable land-use practices continue to be a major source of concern around the world, owing primarily to rapid population growth and the extension of agricultural land into forests.

Given all the available information, it can be concluded that technology is the sole solution to the current situation. However, given the current baseline, it will require a massive leap in technological innovation to “green the entire global economy.” Furthermore, even if we decide to be optimistic and invest heavily in research and development for better green technologies, it is difficult to predict how long it will take to achieve the desired outcome. Thus, it is prudent to invest in R&D while also exploring other options, as highlighted at the recent UN Biodiversity Conference (CBD COP15 (Part I), 2021) in Kunming, China, where parties adopted the non-binding Kunming Declaration. The incorporation of the “Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework” is a component of this novel strategy aimed at preserving life on Earth. This framework will delineate the specific actions that countries need to undertake, both alone and collaboratively, in the coming decade and beyond, to steer humanity towards the CBD’s overarching goal of “living in harmony with nature” by 2050. An essential aspect of this new framework is the stipulation that protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures must encompass a minimum of 30% of the Earth’s surface by 2030. This criterion also acknowledges and respects the rights and contributions of indigenous peoples and local communities. It is essential to incorporate all significant areas for biodiversity, such as key biodiversity areas (KBAs), within the 30% target. Measures should be implemented to guarantee the connection of habitats (Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, 2022).

Globally, less than 15% of the land is designated as a protected area, approximately 17% of global forests are protected, and less than 50% of important sites for terrestrial biodiversity are protected (Ritchie and Roser, 2021). Plant tissue culture has been overlooked in global conservation policy for far too long, despite the enormous evolution it has undergone over the last few decades. Perhaps this is why, despite increased funding, current conservation efforts have lagged in many ways. To successfully implement the 30-by-30 post-2020 global biodiversity framework, it is crucial to secure substantial financial resources from all parties involved. Additionally, it is essential to align climate and biodiversity policies at the regional level ( Box 1 ). Moreover, it is of utmost importance to establish an advanced plant tissue culture laboratory and its complementary elements and units to support protected area, such as national parks, biosphere reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries. This advanced technology will greatly assist in the protection, restoration, and conservation of plant diversity ( Figure 1 , Boxes 6 , 7 ). The market size of the global plant tissue culture industry was approximately $383 million in 2020. It is projected to expand to over $900 million by 2030, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.5% from 2021 to 2030 (Allied Market Research, 2022). These figures provide a clear indication of the sector’s growth by 2030 and strongly suggest the need to scale up and increase public-private partnerships in the coming years. Plant tissue culture companies already have the technical capabilities to be potential partners in plant conservation, and these capabilities are expected to grow even more. Governments must fund the establishment of plant tissue culture facilities to support each protected area. Tourism must evolve into a more reliable conservation ally by integrating biodiversity into its core practices and strategies. Conserving soil biodiversity is critical for sustaining the multitude of ecosystem functions that soils provide for both natural environments and human societies. Kew Gardens is a United Kingdom public organization sponsored by the Department for Environment. Its main objective is to halt the extinction problem and actively contribute to the establishment of a world where nature is safeguarded, appreciated, and sustainably governed. So far, the Kew Gardens model for ex situ and in situ conservation is the best in the world and should serve as a model for other governments worldwide. The Kew model, however, should not be limited to Kew. While the Kew model has demonstrated efficacy on a bilateral level, its application on a multilateral scale, particularly within the proposed Kew-Wide Mechanism (KWM) for global adoption as a solution to climate and plant diversity loss, remains untested. This study establishes the framework for a global initiative, necessitating validation through a series of pilot programmes ( Figure 2 ). The Kew-Wide Mechanism is the most comprehensive plan, taking into account the climate and plant diversity emergencies and emphasizing the need for global and national coordination in order to achieve the 30-by-30 terrestrial biome target under the new global biodiversity conservation framework by 2050 and beyond.

This review underscores the intricate relationship between climate change and biodiversity loss, elucidating both the individual and correlated driving forces and the multifaceted policy challenges hindering progress towards ambitious goals such as achieving a net-zero emissions economy by 2050 and the overarching post-2020 biodiversity framework goals. Despite the commitment laid out in the Paris Agreement nearly a decade ago, challenges persist, including a lack of solidarity at the national level, amplified global conflicts resulting in a shift in national priorities towards defense spending. Moreover, the challenge is compounded by the scarcity of capital, influenced by macroeconomic factors such as rising interest rates and demographic shifts worldwide, particularly in affluent nations. For instance, as people retire, they often tap into their retirement savings or pensions to sustain their post-retirement lifestyle, resulting in a reduction of available capital for investment in sectors like renewable energy. Furthermore, retirees tend to favor conservative investments with predictable returns over renewable energy projects, which necessitate substantial upfront investment and boast longer payback periods. Additionally, retirees may liquidate assets such as stocks or bonds to finance retirement, thereby further depleting available capital. Lastly, as the workforce diminishes due to retirements, contributions to investment vehicles decline, further constricting capital availability for renewable energy and other critical sectors.

In addressing these challenges, decarbonization of energy emerges as a pivotal solution. However, its realization remains uncertain due to insufficient R&D financing and associated financial risks. Additionally, the practicality and scalability of carbon capture and storage technology pose significant obstacles for most countries. Furthermore, the transportation sector ranks as the second-largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, following the energy industry. Mitigating its environmental impact is also a paramount concern for governments, industry stakeholders, and researchers worldwide. Battery technologies, although increasingly popular in electric vehicles (EVs), continue to encounter persistent challenges that hinder widespread acceptance. Limitations such as restricted driving range, high maintenance costs, battery-related issues (including recycling challenges), and inadequate charging infrastructure remain prevalent. Moreover, concerns regarding the initial high purchase cost and the broader acceptance of EV technology remain significant barriers. Despite their promise, physicochemical limitations constrain the advancement of lithium-ion batteries, and prolonged charging times deter potential consumers. Addressing these challenges necessitates a focus on innovative battery technologies capable of overcoming existing limitations and driving EV adoption. These innovative solutions should aim to enhance battery lifespan, bolster safety features, and facilitate faster charging capabilities, thereby addressing concerns regarding maintenance costs and extended charging durations. By fostering innovation in battery technology, the industry can pave the way for more accessible and widely accepted electric vehicles, ultimately mitigating the obstacles currently impeding widespread EV adoption.

Addressing the dual challenges of climate change and biodiversity loss necessitates innovative financial mechanisms, advanced technological development, and enhanced collaboration among diverse stakeholders. Therefore, effective solutions must be pursued through concerted efforts at both global and national levels. Moving forward, policymakers must prioritize investments in R&D for revolutionary energy technologies and foster international cooperation to overcome financial barriers. Moreover, promoting renewable energy projects and incentivizing investor participation are critical steps towards achieving decarbonization goals. Addressing the challenges associated with carbon capture and storage technology requires increased research efforts and strategic investments to enhance scalability and affordability. Ultimately, achieving a net zero emissions economy and biodiversity conservation goals requires a coordinated, multidimensional approach that integrates climate action, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable development. By addressing the identified challenges head-on and implementing targeted policy interventions, nations can pave the way for a more resilient and sustainable future.

The pivotal role of plant biomes as the highest carbon sink underscores the urgent need for their conservation. Unlike many climate mitigation and adaptation measures that pose financial and logistical challenges for most countries, plant conservation measures offer a more accessible pathway to address climate change impacts. Given that greenhouse gases are the primary cause of climate change, which in turn drives the decline in plant diversity, addressing anthropogenic drivers is crucial ( Figure 7 ). By promoting sustainable practices and restoring plant ecosystems, a positive feedback loop can be established, enhancing the capacity of plants to sequester carbon emissions. Conventional methods for plant production and conservation, however, are inadequate to address the magnitude of current challenges. Fortunately, advancements in plant tissue culture technology offer a promising solution. Over the past decades, this technology has evolved significantly, enabling mass production and conservation of plants on a scale previously unattainable. Furthermore, plant tissue culture facilitates the production of high-quality plant stock and elite cultivars tailored to thrive in diverse environmental conditions ( Figure 1 , Box 8 ). To capitalize on the potential of plant tissue culture technology, policymakers must prioritize its integration into conservation strategies and allocate resources accordingly. By leveraging this cutting-edge technology, policymakers and conservationists can establish robust plant conservation programmes capable of mitigating climate change impacts and safeguarding biodiversity.

The existing conservation strategies exhibit a concerning degree of passivity, relying heavily on the goodwill of national governments. While this approach is commendable, it falls short of effectively addressing the complex conservation challenges encountered nowadays ( Figure 8 ). Moreover, protected areas, often hailed as bastions of conservation, are not impervious to unsustainable practices such as resource overexploitation for economic and domestic purposes. Furthermore, certain protected areas are disproportionately impacted by climate change due to their geographical location, exacerbating the decline in plant diversity within these regions ( Figure 4 ). The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) faces significant challenges in its current form ( Table 2 ). Financially outmatched by illegal trade, CITES struggles with issues of traceability, listing inadequacies, and inadequate multilateral coordination. These shortcomings undermine the efficacy of CITES in combating the illegal wildlife trade and protecting endangered plant species. Addressing these policy challenges requires proactive measures to enhance conservation efforts and strengthen regulatory frameworks. Policymakers must prioritize the development and implementation of comprehensive regulatory frameworks that not only curb illegal trade but also promote sustainable practices within protected areas. Strengthening international cooperation and coordination mechanisms is paramount to enhance the effectiveness of initiatives like CITES and ensure their relevance in addressing contemporary conservation challenges. This may involve streamlining listing procedures, improving funding mechanisms, and fostering greater collaboration among member states. Furthermore, investing in innovative technologies and data-driven approaches can bolster conservation efforts by improving monitoring, enforcement, and traceability. Embracing digital solutions and harnessing the power of big data can enhance our understanding of biodiversity trends and inform targeted interventions.

By funding and establishing KWM as a central entity tasked with overseeing plant conservation goals, including the 30-by-30 targets outlined in the post-2020 biodiversity conservation framework, nations can bridge the gap between global and national priorities. At the heart of KWM lies the SEGK, comprising technocrats confirmed by parliament or any other representative government body rather than political figures. These experts act as the crucial link between government officials and international partners, facilitating the coordination and effective execution of conservation objectives. This composition ensures that technical expertise guides objective decision-making, free from unwarranted political influence. The implementation of KWM at the national level offers several benefits. Firstly, it aligns national conservation efforts with global agendas, promoting coherence and collaboration in achieving shared goals. Secondly, by leveraging technocratic expertise, KWM ensures that decisions are informed by scientific evidence and best practices, enhancing the efficacy of conservation strategies. Additionally, government funding provides the necessary resources to support KWM’s initiatives, ensuring their sustainability and long-term impact. Moreover, KWM serves as a platform for fostering partnerships and knowledge exchange among stakeholders at all levels. By engaging with diverse actors, including government agencies, research institutions, civil society organizations, and local communities, KWM promotes inclusivity and ownership of conservation initiatives. This participatory approach enhances the legitimacy and effectiveness of plant conservation efforts, contributing to the broader objectives of biodiversity conservation. In conclusion, the implementation of KWM at the national level represents a strategic approach to addressing the challenges of plant conservation while advancing global solidarity. By harnessing technocratic expertise, government funding, and inclusive governance mechanisms, KWM offers a pathway towards achieving ambitious conservation targets and safeguarding plant diversity for future generations.

The successful implementation of KWM initiative necessitates the establishment of a sufficient number of state-of-the-art plant tissue culture laboratories and complementary infrastructure strategically located across national territories or within designated protected areas. These facilities are essential for meeting the demands and imperatives associated with mass plant production and the conservation of endangered species. By strategically positioning these laboratories, logistical challenges can be minimized, thereby enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of conservation efforts. Furthermore, plant tissue culture facilities have the potential to serve multiple purposes beyond conservation. In addition to their primary role in mass plant production, these facilities can also cater to commercial interests, particularly during periods of minimal demand for the propagation of endangered plant species. By diversifying their services, plant tissue culture laboratories can generate revenue streams that support their ongoing operation and maintenance, ensuring their long-term sustainability. Moreover, these facilities can serve as hubs for vocational training and entrepreneurship development, providing valuable opportunities for skill development and capacity building. Through structured training programmes, participants can acquire specialized skills in plant tissue culture techniques, entrepreneurship, and research methodologies, fostering the growth of a highly skilled workforce in the field of plant biotechnology and conservation. Furthermore, the affiliation of plant tissue culture laboratories with higher education institutions offers additional benefits. By collaborating with academic institutions, these facilities can contribute to the advancement of scientific knowledge through research and innovation. Additionally, partnerships with universities provide opportunities for student engagement and mentorship, nurturing the next generation of conservation scientists and biotechnologists.

The implementation of the KWM initiative presents a unique opportunity to engage the public, raise awareness, and foster behavioral changes regarding climate change and biodiversity conservation. By leveraging its platform and resources, KWM can serve as a catalyst for public education and sensitization efforts, empowering individuals to take meaningful action to address pressing environmental challenges. One of the key strengths of KWM lies in its ability to champion inclusiveness and collaboration among all stakeholders in addressing current environmental challenges. By bringing together diverse groups, including government agencies, conservation organizations, local communities, and the private sector, KWM promotes a holistic approach to conservation that integrates various perspectives and expertise. This inclusive approach not only enhances the effectiveness of conservation efforts but also fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility among all stakeholders. Furthermore, KWM can play a pivotal role in promoting behavioral changes that support climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation. Through targeted outreach campaigns, educational programmes, and community engagement initiatives, KWM can raise awareness about the importance of preserving natural ecosystems, reducing carbon emissions, and adopting sustainable practices. By empowering individuals to make informed choices and take proactive steps to protect the environment, KWM contributes to a culture of environmental stewardship and collective action. By championing inclusivity, fostering collaboration, and empowering individuals and communities, KWM can catalyze a collective response to environmental challenges, leading to more resilient ecosystems, healthier communities, and a more sustainable future for all.

The 21^st century is an unprecedented era in human history that demands resolute action to counteract the decline in plant diversity driven by climate change and anthropogenic influences. Although commendable progress has been made in mitigating climate change, adapting to its effects, and conserving biodiversity, these achievements represent only the first steps towards our overarching objectives. Given the scale of the challenge, they can be viewed as initial steps towards our desired targets, which include reducing greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to a net-zero economy by 2050. Moreover, the milestone goals outlined in the 30-by-30 targets under the post-2020 biodiversity framework must be met by 2030, paving the way for broader objectives by 2050 ( Box 1 ). These intertwined goals underscore the symbiotic relationship between forests, encompassing biodiversity as a whole, and their critical role as the “lungs” of the Earth, serving as vital carbon sinks. To achieve these ambitious yet realistic objectives, the global community needs to work together and address the weaknesses and limitations that have impeded progress ( Figures 6 – 8 ). Moreover, it is imperative to acknowledge that alternative approaches, which may have yet to be initially considered, may serve as the linchpin for achieving the desired targets. This recognition underscores the importance of flexibility, adaptability, and innovation in navigating challenges and optimizing outcomes.

In light of this perspective, our review article proposes the implementation of a novel global policy framework termed the Kew-Wide Mechanism (KWM). Drawing inspiration from the successful Kew Gardens model for plant conservation, the KWM holds promise for making a profound positive impact on a global scale. By bridging the gap between global and national priorities for plant conservation, the KWM endeavors to advance humanity’s collective endeavor of safeguarding plant diversity, thereby contributing to a sustainable future for all ( Figure 2 ).

The KWM is driven by two primary forces. Firstly, the SEGK stands as the foundational driving force within the KWM, comprising predominantly national experts in plant conservation and related fields. Equipped with advanced technical expertise and executive authority, these experts collaborate closely with external advisors from prestigious institutions like Kew Gardens and other key global partners, providing invaluable monitoring and advisory support. Serving as the bridge between governments and critical international partners such as IUCN and CBD, the SEGK ensures stakeholder accountability by facilitating seamless coordination and collaboration to achieve collective targets. Secondly, the integration of advanced plant tissue culture laboratories (PTCs) within the KWM underscores its innovative and practical approach, marking the first global-scale utilization of this cutting-edge technology for plant conservation. This strategic incorporation of PTCs represents a pioneering effort to confront the urgent challenges of plant diversity decline in the contemporary global landscape.

To effectively preserve biodiversity and mitigate climate change, a comprehensive approach involving policy reforms and collaborative efforts is imperative. CITES requires restructuring to enhance its effectiveness in biodiversity conservation, necessitating policy modifications, increased funding, strengthened enforcement mechanisms, and enhanced international cooperation. The tourism industry must adopt sustainable practices to align with conservation goals and promote responsible tourism. Public-private partnerships must be scaled up to advance conservation efforts and enhance ecological resilience. While the Kew-Wide Mechanism (KWM) shows promise as a coordination tool for plant diversity preservation, its efficacy requires validation through dedicated financial resources for pilot studies. These investigations will assess feasibility, identify challenges, and refine implementation strategies to ensure global effectiveness. The KWM represents a comprehensive strategy addressing policy gaps, fostering collaboration, and fostering innovation necessary for enhancing conservation efforts and securing biodiversity for future generations ( Figure 11 ).