The growing pervasiveness of digital technology in everyday life has brought undeniable benefits, but it has also introduced new challenges, particularly for adolescents (Jones, 2024). Among these, cyberbullying stands out as a highly prevalent and psychologically damaging phenomenon, capable of affecting students’ academic performance, emotional wellbeing, and sense of safety in both digital and physical environments (Kowalski et al., 2023; Fekih-Romdhane et al., 2024). Cyberbullying has emerged as a significant concern in the digital era, affecting individuals across various age groups and demographics. It encompasses a range of aggressive behaviors executed through digital platforms, including harassment, denigration, impersonation, and exclusion. These actions are facilitated by the pervasive use of social media, messaging apps, and other online communication tools, making it easier for perpetrators to target victims beyond physical boundaries (González-Cabrera et al., 2021). Studies by Smith et al. (2021) and Kowalski et al. (2023) underscore the severe psychological toll on victims of cyberbullying, including anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation. Jones et al. (2024) emphasizes enduring post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, while Galán et al. (2021) and Fekih-Romdhane et al. (2024) emphasize its disproportionate impact on marginalized groups and individuals with mental health issues, necessitating targeted interventions. A cyber-victim is an individual who is subjected to harmful actions via digital platforms. These actions can include receiving threatening messages, having personal information shared without consent, or being the subject of online rumors. The consequences for cyber-victims often include psychological distress, anxiety, depression, and social withdrawal. A study by Lloret-Irles et al. (2022) highlights that victims of cyberbullying may experience significant emotional and psychological challenges, impacting their overall wellbeing. As for the cyber-aggressor, or cyber-perpetrator, is the individual who engages in harmful behaviors toward others through electronic means. Motivations for such behavior can vary, including the desire for power, retaliation, or entertainment. Cyber-aggressors may engage in activities such as sending malicious messages, spreading false information, or deliberately excluding individuals from online communities. Research indicates that certain personality traits and environmental factors can contribute to an individual’s propensity to become a cyber-aggressor (González-Cabrera et al., 2021). It is mandatory to now focus on the cyber-observers, also known as bystanders, that are individuals who witness cyberbullying incidents without being directly involved as victims or aggressors. Within the scope of this issue, the role currently attributed to this cyber actor is increasingly important as their reactions can significantly influence the dynamics of cyberbullying. Passive observers may inadvertently reinforce the aggressor’s behavior by not intervening, while active cyber-observers can deter bullying by supporting the victim or reporting the incident. The role of cyber-observers is critical, as their actions or inactions can either perpetuate or mitigate the occurrence of cyberbullying. Lloret-Irles et al. (2022) emphasize that understanding the predictors of bystanding behavior is essential for developing comprehensive anti-cyberbullying strategies. Albiero et al. (2019) shed light on cyber-observers apathy, emphasizing the importance of raising awareness about the harmful effects of cyberbullying to break the cycle of silence and inaction. It is relevant to state that the roles of cyber-victim, cyber-aggressor, and cyber-observer are not always mutually exclusive. Individuals may occupy multiple roles over time or even simultaneously. For instance, a victim of cyberbullying might retaliate and become a cyber-aggressor, or a cyber-observers might intervene and subsequently be targeted. Understanding these fluid dynamics is essential for developing comprehensive strategies to address cyberbullying. González-Cabrera et al. (2021) noted that the overlap of these roles can complicate the identification and intervention processes, necessitating a nuanced approach to prevention and support. The surge in cyberbullying, exacerbated by widespread online engagement and worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic (Hinduja and Patchin, 2021), exposes a critical modern-day challenge that left society unprepared. Moreover, Oliveira et al. (2024) draw attention the positive impact of intervention projects in reducing cyberbullying incidence. Tao et al. (2024) studies highlight the efficacy of education on cyberbullying and online safety in empowering adolescents to report incidents and seek support. Henares-Montiel et al. (2023) advocate for multidisciplinary approaches involving stakeholders beyond educational institutions. Torgal et al.'s (2023) underscores the need for consensus on effective prevention strategies, emphasizing collaboration between schools, communities, and the technology industry. Despite extensive research, perspectives of cyberbullying victims, often overlooked, are crucial for developing effective prevention programs (Patchin and Hinduja, 2022). Mishna et al. (2020) advocate giving students a platform to express their experiences. Ybarra et al. (2015) emphasize students’ role in disseminating information and raising awareness. While numerous intervention strategies have emerged, there is growing consensus in the literature that punitive or reactive measures alone are insufficient. Increasingly, scholars and educators alike point to the necessity of systemic, preventive, and educational responses grounded in digital ethics and social responsibility. This is where the concept of Digital Citizenship becomes central as the pedagogical and ethical foundation for addressing cyberbullying in school contexts (Fredrick et al., 2023; Macharia and Dunaway, 2025). Digital Citizenship refers to the responsible, ethical, and active participation of individuals in digital environments. It encompasses not only technical competence, but also values such as empathy, respect, online safety, privacy awareness, and constructive engagement (Jones et al., 2024; Yang et al., 2021). This broader framework aligns with the increasing recognition that cyberbullying is not simply an isolated behavioral issue, but a symptom of a lack of digital socialization and ethical digital literacy within formal education. From this perspective, schools have a crucial role—not only as environments where cyberbullying incidents may occur, but as educational spaces where Digital Citizenship must be intentionally cultivated. This includes curriculum integration, whole-school policies, and most importantly, teacher training programs capable of empowering educators to guide students in navigating digital challenges (Cortés-Pascual et al., 2020; Fiorentini et al., 2022). Indeed, as our scoping study later shows, teacher training is often cited in the literature as a missing or underdeveloped element in prevention frameworks. Moreover, positioning Digital Citizenship at the center of cyberbullying prevention allows us to move beyond the binary logic of victim/aggressor, and instead promote a proactive model that includes bystanders as active agents, encourages positive peer relationships, and strengthens students’ social–emotional competencies—all factors explored in our Results and Discussion sections. These are not isolated actions, but interdependent pillars of an educational ecosystem that values safe, inclusive, and participatory digital cultures. The present article aims to explore and reinforce this connection. To that end, we conducted a scoping review of scientific literature on students’ perceptions of cyberbullying and complemented it with a questionnaire applied to 193 students in the Portuguese school system. Our objective is twofold: (1) to identify how students themselves perceive the phenomenon of cyberbullying, and (2) to analyze how these perceptions reflect or diverge from the strategies emphasized in the literature—particularly those involving Digital Citizenship as a preventive and formative approach. By triangulating findings from both sources, we aim to contribute to a deeper understanding of how Digital Citizenship can act not as a peripheral concept, but as a transformative axis in the design of anti-cyberbullying strategies and educational policy at large.

This study offers a distinctive contribution by integrating two complementary methodological approaches: a scoping review of the literature and an empirical analysis based on student questionnaires. While prior research has independently explored either theoretical frameworks or student experiences related to cyberbullying, this article bridges that gap by directly comparing evidence from both sources. Such triangulation enables a more comprehensive understanding of cyberbullying in educational settings, revealing discrepancies between academic discourse and students lived realities. Additionally, the incorporation of the Digital Citizenship framework as a cross-cutting analytical lens adds an innovative dimension, positioning the study within contemporary discussions about ethical and responsible technology use in youth populations. This dual-method design strengthens both the external validity of the findings and their relevance for shaping practical school interventions.

When comparing our questionnaire data with the findings from our scoping study, several important insights emerge regarding students’ perceptions of cyberbullying and potential intervention strategies. This discussion synthesizes these findings to provide a comprehensive understanding of the cyberbullying phenomenon in educational contexts, emphasizing Digital Citizenship not merely as a complement, but as an educational framework that supports ethical behavior, social responsibility, and active digital engagement.

Our research revealed a concerning pattern regarding cyber-observer behavior. The majority of students reported awareness of cyberbullying incidents but chose not to take action. This aligns with our questionnaire data showing that a significant proportion of students had witnessed cyberbullying without reporting it. This reluctance to intervene may stem from several factors identified in the literature: fear of retaliation, lack of reporting knowledge, or uncertainty about appropriate intervention methods (Cortés-Pascual et al., 2020; Menabò et al., 2023). Furthermore, many students may remain passive due to what Otchere et al. (2021) describe as the normalization of cyberbullying—where repeated exposure to online aggression leads students to view such behaviors as an inherent part of digital interactions rather than an issue warranting intervention. Peer pressure compounds this problem, as students may fear social exclusion if they report cyberbullying incidents (Waasdorp et al., 2017). These findings underscore the critical importance of empowering cyber-observers to take action. Studies have demonstrated that students who receive guidance on effective intervention strategies are significantly more likely to support victims and report incidents (Lee et al., 2024). Schools implementing active cyber-observer training programs have experienced substantial increases in reporting rates and corresponding decreases in cyberbullying incidents (Polanin et al., 2022). Within a Digital Citizenship paradigm, such empowerment becomes part of a broader educational mission: to instill in students a sense of civic responsibility, digital ethics, and the confidence to engage constructively in online spaces. By framing the observer as a digital citizen, we shift the focus from passive non-involvement to active, ethical participation in virtual communities.

Our analysis highlighted notable gender differences in cyberbullying experiences and perceptions. This finding emphasizes the need for gender-sensitive approaches in cyberbullying prevention, ensuring that intervention strategies address both male and female experiences rather than reinforcing one-dimensional victimization narratives. Educators and policymakers should be aware of gender biases in student perceptions, as these may shape how bullying cases are reported and addressed. Digital Citizenship frameworks, when implemented with equity in mind, can help support inclusive approaches that are sensitive to intersectional differences—including gender, identity, and vulnerability.

A particularly significant finding challenges the commonly held assumption regarding perpetrator anonymity in cyberbullying. Our empirical data suggests a potential continuum between traditional bullying and its cyber counterpart, wherein cyberbullying may function as an extension of face-to-face aggression. Studies by Aizenkot and Kashy-Rosenbaum (2020) and Chaves-Álvarez et al. (2020) support this observation, revealing that in many school cyberbullying cases, victims can identify their aggressors with considerable certainty. This identification capability may paradoxically contribute to victims’ reluctance to report incidents, as they may fear physical retaliation. The digital medium allows for the prolongation and ubiquity of aggressive behaviors, effectively eliminating safe spaces for victims. Consequently, targets of such aggression may experience sustained attacks beyond the confines of the educational institution, amplifying negative impacts on their psychosocial wellbeing. These findings call for integrated approaches that do not treat the digital and physical school spaces as separate, but rather as overlapping domains of student interaction. Digital Citizenship education encourages this holistic perspective by fostering coherent values, behavior, and decision-making across both spheres. Students should be taught that ethical conduct, empathy, and accountability are not context-dependent, but are continuous across their daily social environments—both online and offline.

Based on our analysis of literature and questionnaire responses, we determined that the most frequent type of cyberbullying involves receiving derogatory or ridiculing messages online or via mobile devices. Additionally, our data indicates that cyberbullying incidents most frequently occur within online social connections and interaction platforms. This awareness of common cyberbullying forms and channels is crucial for developing targeted prevention strategies. Through the lens of Digital Citizenship, these findings reinforce the need for students to develop not only technical skills, but ethical discernment in digital communication—learning to identify, avoid, and challenge harmful behavior in platforms they use daily.

Our findings strongly support the implementation of comprehensive educational interventions at various levels. Teachers require digital literacy training programs that integrate cyberbullying prevention strategies into their curriculum. Research indicates that educators who receive formal training on digital citizenship are better equipped to identify and intervene in online harassment cases (Fredrick et al., 2023). Schools should incorporate mandatory digital literacy courses focusing on responsible online behavior, privacy protection, and ethical technology use, as outlined in the Be Internet Awesome curriculum (Jones et al., 2024). These interventions should emphasize the development of social and emotional skills among students, as promoting Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) competencies has been identified as a critical factor in deterring cyberbullying (Yang et al., 2021).

Among the key educational interventions, teacher training emerged as a recurring and critical theme in both the literature and the empirical data. Although initially introduced in the introduction as central to promoting Digital Citizenship, its practical implications merit deeper exploration. Studies have demonstrated that educators equipped with targeted training in digital ethics, online safety, and cyberbullying prevention are more capable of identifying risk behaviors and acting preemptively (Fredrick et al., 2023; Alcaine and Sánchez, 2020). The findings of this study reinforce the notion that any effective anti-cyberbullying plan must prioritize teacher professional development, particularly within the context of fostering ethical and empathetic online interactions. Strengthening teachers’ capacity to deliver Digital Citizenship education is not merely a support mechanism—it is a foundational pillar for cultivating safer and more respectful digital school communities.

School administrators play a crucial role in establishing cyber-safe environments by implementing comprehensive cyberbullying policies. Their responsibilities should extend beyond policy enforcement to include proactive engagement with students, teachers, and parents. Research indicates that schools with administrators actively involved in cyberbullying prevention demonstrate lower incidence rates and higher student trust in intervention mechanisms (Fiorentini et al., 2022). Additionally, policymakers should establish clear guidelines on cyberbullying intervention protocols within school regulations, including enforcing mandatory reporting mechanisms and ensuring students have access to anonymous reporting platforms to reduce fear of retaliation. Clear internal procedural protocols ensure that all parties—especially victims and observers—understand appropriate responses to cyberbullying situations, promoting timely reporting of incidents. Digital Citizenship, when adopted at the policy level, provides a common ethical and procedural language across the entire educational community.

The data collectively emphasize the relevance of promoting Digital Citizenship, which prioritizes appropriate technology use as a driver of quality interpersonal relationships. An educational system that emphasizes cultivating positive relationships among students, as advocated by various researchers including Cortés-Pascual et al. (2020), Jankowiak et al. (2021), and particularly Aizenkot and Kashy-Rosenbaum (2020), can significantly reduce cyberbullying incidents. Framed within Digital Citizenship, these relationships are not incidental but intentional educational outcomes that contribute to healthier school climates and civic engagement online.

By focusing on these key areas, educational institutions can transform cyberbullying from an individual struggle to a community-wide concern, reinforcing social norms that reject online harassment while promoting respectful digital interaction. Digital Citizenship serves here not merely as content, but as a shared value system, a preventive mechanism, and an educational compass that empowers all stakeholders—students, teachers, families, and administrators—to navigate digital life ethically, empathetically, and collectively.

The findings from our correlation study between questionnaire results from 193 students and the scoping review on cyberbullying literature reveal several important insights for addressing this growing concern in educational environments.

Our research underscores the critical importance of understanding students’ perceptions regarding cyberbullying, as they are the primary stakeholders in this phenomenon. This understanding forms the foundation for developing effective intervention strategies. Educational institutions must prioritize comprehensive intervention plans that promote social and emotional development while addressing the unique challenges of digital interactions. Within this context, Digital Citizenship emerges not as an isolated component, but as the ethical and educational framework through which all interventions should be structured.

Based on our analysis, we have identified six essential components that must be integrated into effective cyberbullying prevention frameworks—each of which gains coherence and sustainability when grounded in a Digital Citizenship perspective:

First, schools must emphasize activities that foster social and emotional skill development among students. This includes establishing robust mental health support systems with proactive psychological interventions to ensure timely counseling and emotional support for affected students. These elements are fundamental for promoting overall wellbeing in the digital age. Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), when embedded in Digital Citizenship education, equips students not only with emotional regulation skills but also with the ethical orientation necessary for respectful digital interactions.

Second, educational programs must promote appropriate technology usage by clearly defining and reinforcing proper online behaviors. This approach to digital literacy must extend beyond technical competence to encompass social and ethical dimensions of digital interaction. Digital Citizenship education provides this broader lens, helping students internalize norms of responsibility, privacy, empathy, and active online participation.

Third, teacher training represents a critical prerequisite for any effective intervention plan. Educators require formal preparation in digital citizenship and cyberbullying prevention strategies to identify and address online harassment effectively. Research demonstrates that properly trained teachers are significantly better equipped to intervene in cyberbullying situations. Teacher development rooted in Digital Citizenship not only improves incident management but also models ethical digital behavior for students.

Fourth, educational institutions must establish clear procedural protocols for addressing cyberbullying incidents. This includes implementing mandatory reporting mechanisms, anonymous reporting platforms, and comprehensive policies with active administrator involvement. Schools with engaged leadership demonstrate lower cyberbullying rates and higher student trust in intervention processes. Embedding Digital Citizenship into school policies creates a unified culture of accountability and shared values across all school actors.

Fifth, our research highlights the pivotal role of cyber-observers in both preventing and mitigating cyberbullying effects. Students who receive guidance on effective intervention strategies are substantially more likely to support victims and report incidents. Schools that implement active cyber-observer training programs have documented significant increases in reporting rates and corresponding decreases in cyberbullying incidents. Empowering observers through Digital Citizenship training reframes them as agents of positive digital change, fostering civic engagement and ethical responsibility.

Sixth, our empirical findings challenge the presumed anonymity of cyberbullying perpetrators. Our data suggests a potential continuum between traditional bullying and cyberbullying, with the latter often functioning as an extension of face-to-face aggression. This continuation into digital spaces eliminates safe havens for victims, amplifying negative impacts on their psychosocial wellbeing. By treating online and offline behavior as part of the same social ecosystem, Digital Citizenship provides a coherent ethical framework for consistent behavior across all environments.

In conclusion, creating educational environments that actively promote Digital Citizenship represents a powerful and comprehensive strategy to prevent and address cyberbullying. By fostering appropriate technology usage and implementing the recommended interventions through a shared ethical lens, schools can significantly improve personal and social relationships within their communities while protecting students in digital spaces. These comprehensive approaches transform cyberbullying from an individual struggle to a community-wide concern, reinforcing social norms that reject online harassment and promote respectful, inclusive, and ethically grounded digital interaction.

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling for participant recruitment. While this method facilitates data collection by leveraging accessibility, it may introduce selection bias, as participants are not randomly chosen but rather self-selected based on their willingness and availability to respond. Consequently, the findings may not be fully generalizable to broader student populations, particularly those from different socio-economic backgrounds or educational contexts not represented in the sample (Creswell and Creswell, 2018). Furthermore, the reliance on an online questionnaire administered within specific schools may have excluded students with limited digital access or differing levels of technological proficiency, potentially skewing the data toward more digitally literate participants. Future research should consider employing stratified or random sampling techniques to enhance the representativeness of the sample and improve external validity.