In the contemporary world, media literacy and digital skills have become essential for effective personal communication and social interaction (Šušterič et al., 2025). However, there is a prevailing view that access to information and the development of skills and literacy, while necessary, are insufficient conditions for the meaningful consumption of news content (Hosman and Pérez Comisso, 2020).

This issue has garnered attention across many countries. Kazakhstan’s distinct media landscape makes it a notable subject for studying media literacy. The national media system encompasses state television channels (Khabar), private broadcasters (KTK, NTK), and a growing social media sector. According to the National Bureau of Statistics, internet penetration reached 96.2% of the population in 2024. Telegram and Instagram are the most popular platforms, while Twitter (X) attracts politically engaged users. The state regulates the online space through periodic blocking of specific resources and legislation against the dissemination of false information. Such conditions amplify the importance of critical information evaluation skills for public civic engagement. In the digital age—marked by unprecedented access to information, vast data volumes, and a proliferation of sources—there has also been a corresponding rise in the manipulation of information. This presents substantial challenges to society, particularly given that current levels of media literacy do not always correspond to the evolving tactics of information manipulation (Mrisho et al., 2023). The urgency of addressing manipulative information practices in the modern world is clear, as the rapid development of technology and the widespread popularity of social media platforms create new avenues for shaping public opinion (Kraus et al., 2021).

Under such conditions, media literacy—which entails the critical assessment and analysis of information—emerges as a crucial tool for safeguarding society against the adverse effects of manipulation, as evidenced by comparative studies of European and Kazakhstani media systems (Sultanbayeva et al., 2025). However, existing approaches to media literacy development in Kazakhstan often lag behind the rapid evolution of information technologies and manipulation techniques. This creates challenges for educational institutions, governmental bodies, and civil society organizations in formulating effective counterstrategies, thus constituting a pressing area for scholarly inquiry.

This study aims to analyze the evolving requirements for media literacy necessary to counteract information manipulation and to assess measures that promote the development of critical thinking in this context. The scientific value of the research lies in the development of contemporary approaches for identifying and analyzing the mechanisms through which information manipulation influences public opinion, as well as in formulating effective pedagogical strategies that foster resilience to disinformation in the modern information landscape. The practical significance of this study is reflected in the creation of adapted programs and strategies designed to enhance media literacy and combat information manipulation.

An analysis of the information and communication technology (ICT) sector in Kazakhstan, conducted according to internationally recognized Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) criteria, indicates that the digital literacy level of the population—measured through proficiency in the use of digital technologies—has increased significantly (Figure 3).

Among individuals aged 6 and older, the rate has reached 89.1%, while in the 6–74 age group, it has risen to 91.2% (Table 1).

Additional analysis, conducted using time series data from the Bureau of National Statistics of the Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan, revealed significant changes in the level of digital literacy among the population during the period 2018–2024. This finding is particularly relevant in the context of the relatively rapid growth in the number of Internet users in Kazakhstan over the same period. The proportion of Internet users aged 16–74 increased from 83.4% in 2018 to 96.2% in 2024 (Table 2).

In 2024, the majority of households in Kazakhstan used the Internet primarily for sharing information and communication, accounting for 69.6 and 69.7% of users, respectively, while 48.1% reported using it for viewing videos, games, music, and images (Figure 4). Approximately 41.8% of respondents used the Internet to obtain information about goods and services, and 32.9% utilized it to send and receive information via email.

At the regional level in Kazakhstan in 2024, a direct correlation was observed between the proportion of Internet users aged 16–74 and the use of the Internet for obtaining information about goods and services (r = 0.69), as well as for sending and receiving email (r = 0.51). For other purposes of Internet use, the correlation was found to be insignificant. The identified correlations reflect the instrumental use of the internet without directly revealing the level of critical media literacy. A comparison of official statistics with survey results reveals a discrepancy: while digital literacy reached 91.2% and internet penetration was 96.2, 68.3% of respondents reported encountering information manipulation. This indicates a gap between functional digital skills and the critical media literacy necessary to identify disinformation.

A comparative analysis of the results from an online survey conducted in June 2025, focusing on the spread of disinformation, revealed that approximately 68.3% of respondents reported encountering information manipulation and disinformation on the Internet and social media (Appendix 1).

Furthermore, about 92.7% considered this issue relevant in the context of digitalization, and 90.2% agreed that there is a pressing need to develop modern educational programs aimed at building skills for identifying disinformation online (Figure 5).

When asked, “Which information source do you trust the most?”, 35.0% of respondents indicated private television channels, 30.9% cited the Internet, 30.9% trusted state television, 22.0% relied on print media, and 34.1% reported that they do not trust any of the listed sources. These findings suggest that a majority of respondents face the problem of information disinformation in their everyday lives, which in turn affects both public opinion and trust in modern institutions of the information society.

For younger respondents, the Internet and social media are the primary sources of information. This trend is confirmed by the online survey data (Table 3).

The vast majority of respondents, both in urban and rural areas, reported using the Internet and social media on a daily basis. The highest number of respondents was observed in the 18–29 age group. Of particular interest is the 30–59 age group, which demonstrated the most active use of the Internet and social media in rural areas. However, respondents in this group also expressed a significant degree of trust in private television. Nearly 60% of individuals in this demographic reported a preference for using the social network Facebook.

The lowest level of Internet and social media use was recorded among respondents aged 60 and above. At the same time, this age group is traditionally considered the most vulnerable to information manipulation, due to age-related psychological characteristics, particularly those associated with declining cognitive memory functions. Additional contributing factors may include access to various information sources, educational background, and other contextual variables.

The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) examining the impact of residence (urban vs. rural) and age on the choice of primary information source—as an indirect indicator of media literacy skills—are presented in Table 4.

The chi-square test revealed a statistically significant relationship between age group and preferred information source (χ²(6) = 28.47, p < 0.001). Cramér’s V coefficient of 0.34 indicates a moderate effect size. Among young respondents (18–29 years), 79.5% showed a pronounced preference for the internet and social media. Respondents aged 60 and older distributed their preferences more evenly, utilizing both television and online sources. No statistically significant association was found between place of residence and information source choice (χ²(3) = 4.12, p = 0.249; V = 0.18). Urban and rural respondents demonstrated similar distributions across information source categories. These results confirm hypotheses H1 and H2. ANOVA revealed a statistically significant effect of age on the frequency of internet and smartphone use (F(2,117) = 21.16, p < 0.001). Place of residence did not show a statistically significant effect (F(1,117) = 1.35, p = 0.298). Thus, both H1 and H2 were supported.

In addition to ecology and politics, it was also found that unreliable information is frequently disseminated concerning the social and economic aspects of life in Kazakhstan (Table 5).

Using a search engine and keywords such as “visa regime with Kazakhstan,” “ChatGPT banned in Kazakhstan,” “oil slicks in the Caspian,” and “childlessness tax,” a content analysis was conducted, and a coding matrix was developed. In general, positive framing of such topics tends to be associated with explanatory content provided by official government agencies and authorities. By contrast, the online community’s reaction to the possible ban on ChatGPT—news of which spread rapidly in the Kazakh segment of the Internet—was overwhelmingly negative.

A count of fake publications on this topic between January 1 and July 3, 2025, revealed 3,280 occurrences, significantly exceeding the number of general mentions of GPT in Kazakhstan. Another example concerns the discovery of oil slicks in the Caspian Sea. At the time of analysis, 7 instances of fake news were identified among 1,580 total mentions of the topic in Google search results.

On the news website https://tengrinews.kz, coverage of Russia’s introduction of a visa regime with Kazakhstan was analyzed. Approximately 148 user comments expressed a negative attitude toward the news. Later, the same platform published a clarification from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Kazakhstan, under which 38 comments demonstrated a positive response. This example illustrates how manipulation in online environments can be carried out through simple tactics such as injecting emotionally charged headlines and disseminating fake news (Figure 6).

These tactics often involve headlines like “ChatGPT was banned in Kazakhstan” or “Ministry of Finance may consider a childlessness tax,” where emphasis is placed at the beginning on state-related keywords such as Kazakhstan or governmental entities like the Ministry of Finance. This framing strategy amplifies the perceived legitimacy of the disinformation and strengthens its manipulative effect.

A second focus of the content analysis involved examining cases of information manipulation on social media platforms, including X (formerly Twitter), Facebook/Instagram, and YouTube, related to videos that emerged in May 2025. These videos concerned a locust invasion in the southern regions of Kazakhstan, the alleged suspension of pension payments, and political disinformation (Table 6).

The video titled “Locust Invasion” received the highest number of views (36,344 as of May 28, 2025) and 63 likes. However, upon closer examination of this video segment, one can observe elements of intentional amplification of an existing issue. Firstly, the simplistic title employs the provocative term “invasion,” which carries an inherently negative semantic connotation.

A broader analysis of other forms of information manipulation reveals that disinformation is frequently disseminated by repurposing ordinary news stories. For instance, topics such as the introduction of a visa regime or the regulation of banking operations are often used as a basis for manipulation. Other frequently targeted themes in online and social media disinformation include claims such as “cashless payments will become unavailable” or “Kazakhstanis will stop receiving pensions if they don’t spend money.”

To effectively counter information manipulation in digital environments, it is recommended to calculate a Digital Media Literacy Index, which comprises several key components—each evaluated according to a specific scale (Table 7).

Another important aspect is the implementation of educational programs and instructional manuals aimed at enhancing media literacy among students. Equally critical is the analysis of these materials in terms of their alignment with current challenges in digital media literacy. The evaluation was conducted to determine the relevance of these resources to contemporary demands by comparing a student textbook intended for grades 9–11(12) and a teacher’s guide, both available in Kazakh and Russian and accessible in digital format (Table 8).

However, these instructional materials are targeted exclusively at school-aged audiences, despite the fact that all age groups require media literacy education. It is essential that individuals not only possess the ability to locate and use information, but also to engage with it critically, distinguish between fact and opinion, and understand the influence of media on public discourse and personal beliefs.

In 2018, within the framework of the national program Digital Kazakhstan, free digital literacy courses were launched across the country, covering all regions, including district centers, rural areas, and small settlements. Participants could choose one of four areas of training: basic digital skills, using the e-government platform, navigating the open government portal, and acquiring e-commerce skills. These courses helped citizens gain confidence in using computers, mobile devices, and the Internet, access government services online, and develop competencies in the field of electronic commerce.

This study confirms the negative impact of disinformation within the information environment. The findings are largely consistent with recent studies conducted by other scholars, which likewise demonstrate that disinformation and fake news exert adverse effects and generate serious challenges within the informational space. This is particularly evident in the current research on media literacy and information manipulation in Kazakhstan, where data were collected across three age groups: 18–29 years, 30–59 years, and 60 years and older. Notably, 90.2% of respondents emphasized the need to develop modern educational programs aimed at strengthening skills for identifying disinformation on the Internet and social media platforms.

Comparison of these results with similar international studies indicates that young people in Kazakhstan demonstrate higher levels of digital media literacy compared to older generations, a trend that aligns with global patterns in Internet and social media usage growth (Yeleussiz and Qanay, 2025; Yessenbekova et al., 2025). For example, between 2018 and 2024, the share of Internet users in Kazakhstan increased from 83.4 to 96.2%. In 2024, the majority of households primarily used the Internet for information exchange (69.6%) and communication (69.7%), while 48.1% used it for watching videos, gaming, listening to music, and viewing images.

By synthesizing the results of this and other related studies, it is evident that there is a need for the development of more targeted educational programs for different age groups (Kamilova and Orazymbetova, 2024; Suleimenova et al., 2023). A theoretical framework that accounts for the findings of this study may be grounded in the Digital Divide Theory, which highlights disparities in access to and use of digital technologies in daily life (Van Dijk, 2020).

Moreover, it is consistent with other research suggesting that certain individuals are more susceptible to disinformation (Van Der Linden, 2022). Raising public awareness about such manipulation tactics and providing concrete examples can equip individuals with the skills needed to recognize and resist disinformation encountered in everyday life (Van der Linden and Roozenbeek, 2024; Williams and Van der Linden, 2025). As demonstrated in this study, this issue is particularly relevant in Kazakhstan.

Previous studies have indicated that resilience to online disinformation and digital literacy can function as protective factors for youth, helping them avoid the negative consequences of adverse informational experiences (Vissenberg et al., 2022).

Participation in media literacy programs contributes significantly to the development of critical thinking skills when analyzing information encountered on social media. In contrast, fact-checking alone tends to position individuals as passive recipients of isolated corrections, which does not result in meaningful improvements in their evaluative capacities. In contexts where not all claims can be definitively verified, media literacy initiatives are arguably more effective than simple fact-checking (Berger et al., 2025). This assertion is supported by the findings of the present study, which examined educational programs in Kazakhstan. However, these programs are largely targeted toward younger populations, while middle-aged and older individuals also require training in media literacy.

The limited understanding of the nature and underlying causes of this phenomenon underscores the urgent need for further research. Such investigations should explore the complex relationships between fake news and trust in the media, employing contemporary interdisciplinary approaches that integrate insights from communication studies, psychology, and sociology (Dwivedi and Sen, 2025).

Furthermore, the integration of media and information literacy into formal curricula is essential for cultivating critically minded and socially responsible citizens in the digital era. This approach addresses the challenges of media literacy in the information age while leveraging educational opportunities within an ever-evolving media landscape (Rojas-Estrada et al., 2024). Supporting this perspective, comparative data show that digital media literacy in Kazakhstan increased from 79.6% in 2018 to 91.2% in 2024. An analysis of primary uses of the Internet among the population indicates a predominance of digital communication, social networking, and content consumption, with respective usage rates of 69.6, 65.8, and 48.1%.

Over the past decade, the share of Internet users in Kazakhstan has increased significantly and exceeded 95% by 2024. At the regional level, a direct correlation was observed in 2024 between the proportion of Internet users aged 16–74 and their use of the Internet for obtaining information about goods and services (r = 0.69), as well as for sending and receiving emails (r = 0.51). In contrast, correlations for other purposes of Internet use were found to be statistically insignificant. According to the study, 68.3% of respondents in Kazakhstan reported regularly encountering information manipulation and disinformation online. Furthermore, 92.7% considered this issue to be highly relevant for contemporary Kazakhstani society. The findings reveal a pressing need to cultivate critical thinking skills among citizens to enhance their capacity to resist manipulative information effectively. Specifically, 90.2% of respondents emphasized the importance of developing modern educational programs aimed at fostering skills for identifying disinformation on the Internet and social media. Through content analysis of the Kazakhstani segment of the Internet, instances of information manipulation and disinformation were identified across domains, including politics, environmental issues, the economy, and social and public relations. The study established that promoting critical thinking is a fundamental component of media literacy education. It is essential that educational institutions implement curricula that train students not only to consume information but also to analyze and evaluate it critically. The Kazakhstani experience demonstrates that integrating media literacy into school and university programs contributes to a more conscious and responsible approach to information consumption.