The internet is now a part of learning, working, and socializing enabled by email, chat, or video call (Kotlyarova et al., 2023). It allows for both real-time and delayed conversation helping teamwork across different places. Even though the same tools exist everywhere how they are used varies greatly based on local customs and beliefs (Abdallah et al., 2024). Culture affects the way people show feelings give comments or read the mood and purpose in online messages (Luo et al., 2021). What one culture regards as polite and effective communication may seem improper or vague to another. Online interactions are never just technical actions but always culturally mediated processes reflecting the social norms beneath the surface (Seraj, 2012; King et al., 2016). Many scholars have echoed this, stating that being technologically savvy is insufficient for effectively communicating online across different cultures (Cîrtiță-Buzoianu et al., 2022; Mısır, 2017). The higher an individual’s online communication skill (OCS), the greater their cultural sensitivity and emotional awareness of message clarity based on Hamdan (2012). Where these skills are deficient, miscommunication accompanied by anxiety is predominant in such multicultural digital spaces, and academic environments (Eden et al., 2024a, 2024b; Alam and Mohanty, 2023a, 2023b).

Research has shown that the infrastructural setup of the Internet often reflects the communication norms of the West, including values of directness, openness, and immediacy (Patrick and Hollenbeck, 2021). These values create digital inequities for cultures that emphasize values of restraint, hierarchy, or indirect communication (Akintayo et al., 2024; Leng and Zhang, 2023).

Western and Asian contextual challenges have been discussed, but the major gap remains in the understanding of how cultural dimensions influence OCS in Middle Eastern societies. Here, collectivist traditions and digital practices are emerging to co-exist (Hatamleh et al., 2023; Thimm-Kaiser et al., 2023). Thus, a cultural view of online communication is essential for the design of inclusive digital learning environments. The knowledge of the influence of national cultural values on OCS will guide educators and education policymakers in developing culturally responsive training modules that will enhance students’ intercultural competence as well as their communication competence.

Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimensions provide an easy yet deep look at the main ways of thought, action, and interaction between people of different countries. His model comes from research on IBM workers in over 50 nations. He found six main cultural values that guide how societies work (Hofstede, 2001; Hofstede et al., 2010). These include:

These values are not just academic; they find expression in speech, behavior, and particularly in net-based communication. As education, work, and social life go increasingly digital, cultural differences become easier spotted-and harder ignored. In online communication, especially on platforms where people do not respond instantly. Misunderstandings can easily take place. In the absence of body language and tone, people fall back more heavily on cultural “habits” to interpret what others are trying to say (Eden et al., 2024a, 2024b; Sato et al., 2023). Jordan makes a perfect case of how culture interacts with technology. Traditionally, values emphasize high respect for elders, loyalty to the group, and modesty in public expression—thus framing collectivist cultures with high power distance. On the other hand, younger Jordanians are growing up in a more digitalized world. They use social media as well as openly discuss matters expressing themselves freely online (Rabaa'i, 2017; Hatamleh et al., 2023). This results in a new cultural mix: on one hand side of the pole stands traditionalism and social structure whereas on the other is innovation and personal expression. Well, Jordan’s case poses a huge question: How do cultural values changes when they are digitalized? But, then again, how do online platforms in turn influence cultural habits?

Data has been collected using the convenience sampling method from students of selected universities in Jordan. The author chooses this method because of its practically easy way to reach respondents (Etikan et al., 2016). It does not allow results to be generalized to the wider population since it is a non-probability sampling method, though the limitation is very important and has been noted (Saunders et al., 2009). Convenience sampling is very popular in exploratory studies within social science research when understanding theoretical relationships is more critical than making an inference at the population level (Dornyei, 2007).

The final sample consisted of 600 valid responses, exceeding the minimum required sample size for PLS-SEM analysis. According to Hair et al. (2014), an adequate sample size should be at least 10 times the largest number of structural paths directed toward a construct, ensuring reliable parameter estimates. Similarly, Kock and Hadaya (2018) argue that samples above 200 yield robust statistical power in PLS-SEM models, supporting the adequacy of this study’s sample.

A total of 600 valid responses were collected through an electronically distributed questionnaire. The sample included both male (52.2%) and female (47.8%) students, with participants representing different stages of study (first year through fourth year and above). While most respondents were young adults, the sample also included a considerable proportion of older students, some aged 40 and above, thereby broadening the representativeness of the findings beyond the younger demographic.

This age diversity provided valuable insights into how both younger and more mature students perceive and develop online communication skills in light of cultural values. Although the use of convenience sampling may limit the generalizability of results, the large sample size exceeded the minimum recommended threshold for Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLSSEM), ensuring the robustness of the analysis (Hair et al., 2014).

This study adopted cultural dimensions scale from Al Omoush et al. 2012 meagering: 1-Power distance, 2-Collectivism vs. individualism, 3-Uncertainty avoidance, 4-Femininity vs. masculinity, 5-Short-term vs. long-term orientation, 6-Restraint vs. indulgence, used 5-point Likert style all items show good reliability and validity as shown in Table 1 for the research variables. Items assessing Online Communication Skills (OCS) were adapted from Abdallah et al. (2024). All items were measured on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).

Table 2 reports the results of reliability and validity testing for the constructs used in this study. All measurement items demonstrated strong outer loadings (ranging from 0.73 to 0.85), which exceed the minimum recommended threshold of 0.70 (Hair et al., 2014). This indicates that the indicators are good representations of their underlying constructs.

Cronbach’s Alpha values for all constructs ranged between 0.80 and 0.88, surpassing the accepted threshold of 0.70 (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994), thus confirming internal consistency reliability. Similarly, the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values ranged from 0.58 to 0.66, all above the 0.50 cutoff (Fornell and Larcker, 1981), which demonstrates convergent validity.

This output affirms that the variables of culture (power distance, collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, femininity, short-term vs. long-term orientation, and restraint vs. indulgence) and online communication skills (OCS) have been measured by reliable and valid instruments. By results of this analysis, these constructs appear to be internally consistent as well as theoretically sound and thus provide an appropriate basis on which to robustly test the structural model.

Table 3 shows the values of Heterotrait–Monotrait (HTMT) ratios between the constructs of the study to judge their discriminant validity. Since all HTMT values are less than the threshold value of 0.85, and even less than the more liberal criterion of 0.90 (Henseler et al., 2015), this would indicate that these constructs—power distance, collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, femininity, long-term orientation, indulgence, and online communication skills—are empirically different from each other. The highest relationship was between collectivism and online communication skills at 0.592 followed by uncertainty avoidance and OCS at 0.564 which is reflective of Jordan’s cultural norms in emphasizing group harmony and structured communication. The lowest relationship was between indulgence and power distance at 0.389 indicating clear conceptual separation. These results also demonstrate discriminant validity, and reinforce confidence in the model, and show that the cultural dimensions used to account for the relationships between online communication skills are separate, distinct constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Henseler et al., 2015).

Table 5 demonstrates the comparative strength of each Hofstede cultural value dimension in predicting online communication skills (OCS) of Jordanian participants. All six dimensions had a significant and positive effect; however, the strength of their influence differed. The results showed that Collectivism (β = 0.33, T = 14.43, p ≤ 0.001) had the strongest effect on OCS. This emphasized the importance of group harmony, loyalty to the group and group collaboration in Jordanian culture where people often emphasized group goals at the expense of their expression of individual self. Such values will help develop online communication which depends upon cooperation and group interaction.

Uncertainty avoidance (β = 0.26, T = 9.94, p ≤ 0.001) was the second strongest predictor.

This indicates the extent to which Jordanian preference for structure, rules and range in communication added to their digital success, since structured communication in the online world helps to alleviate ambiguity and adds to the confidence of individuals in expressing their ideas.

Long-Term Orientation (β = 0.24, T = 8.89, p ≤ 0.001) also manifested a rather considerable influence, emphasizing the role of persistence and future planning in maintaining consistency in communication. Since Jordanians appreciate education and any kind of goal-oriented engagement, whether students or professionals, they tend to manifest an approach to online communication that is conscious and sustained; thus, their digital skills are constantly enhanced.

Femininity (β = 0.21, T = 6.56, p ≤ 0.001) and Indulgence (β = 0.22, T = 7.86, p ≤ 0.001) exerted moderate effects. Femininity emphasizes empathy, cooperation, and relationship building skills which are more valuable in the online context since there is less nonverbal communication. Indulgence illustrates cultural change toward freedom of emotional expression and informality in digital communication—but it is heavily weighed against Jordan’s traditional norms of restraint.

Finally, Power Distance (β = 0.18, T = 5.29, p ≤ 0.001), while the weakest predictor, was still significantly positive, and All confidence intervals did not cross zero, indicating stable and significant effects. This shows that respect for authority and hierarchical structures, though limiting free expression in face-to-face contexts, can still add up positively in online communication when the digital environment is well structured. In such a setting, where the roles are clearly defined, students and professionals feel more comfortable participating.

The results of this study demonstrate that all six Hofstede cultural dimensions—Power distance, uncertainty avoidance, femininity, long-term orientation and indulgence tested had significant positive effects on online communication skills in Jordan. The model accounts for 93% of explained variance in online communication skills thereby attesting to its very high explanatory power. While all relationships are statistically significant, some dimensions exert more influence than others (see Table 6).

Power Distance revealed the least significant effect, but still a positive influence, upon online communication skills (β = 0.18, T = 5.21, p ≤ 0.001). That is to say that Jordanians do appreciate hierarchy and authority, yet the online environment provides more egalitarian spaces in which participants are allowed to interact with greater freedom. These findings are consistent with Eden et al. (2024a, 2024b) who reported that high Power Distance cultures may serve to limit open feedback to students in traditional classrooms, but structured online platforms limit anxiety and promote greater student participation. In the same vein, Pham (2019) indicated that those in high PD situations may communicate more effectively if the authority relationships are clearly defined, a condition that digital learning environments can easily provide.

Uncertainty Avoidance exhibited a substantial effect (β = 0.26, T = 9.87, p ≤ 0.001), which indicates that Jordanians’ preferences for rules, clarity, and structured communication enhanced their digital competence. This finding agrees with Sohaib and Kang (2016) who indicated that users from high Uncertainty Avoidance cultures preferred formal and rules-based interaction and with Akintayo et al. (2024) who indicated that structured online platforms produced inclusion and clarity in such cultural contexts. From these findings one can deem that Jordanian learners are best assisted when the online environment provided clear rules and predictable patterns, thus fostering the development of effective communication skills.

Feminine values (β = 0.21, T = 6.42, p ≤ 0.001) were also important indicators of online interactive communication in Jordan (see Table 7) emphasizing the importance of empathy, cooperativeness, and support (see Eden et al., 2024a, 2024b; Chase et al., 2002), which stated feminine-related values increase the inclusivity and trustworthiness of space in the online environment. In the Jordanian context, the coexistence of achievement-oriented and relationship-oriented values allows the tendency to emphasize relational harmony to work positively with digital collaboration.

Long-Term Orientation revealed a moderate to strong effect (β = 0.24, T = 8.73, p ≤ 0.001) implying that perseverance, future planning, and consistency are supposed to be keyed for effective online interaction in Jordan. It is consistent with Ding (2003) findings that, in long-term oriented cultures, individuals tend to compose online messages more deliberately and carefully. This supports the value of trust and strategic communication in the Arab context as proposed by Al-Ma’aitah et al. (2024). Jordanian youth seem to aptly balance traditional cultural requirements with modern digital practices. They reflect it through a strategic and regularized pattern of online communication. One of the cultural dimensions which has an impact on such a balance between indulgence and restraint is the dimension of Indulgence. Results indicated a significant positive effect (β = 0.22, T = 7.95, p ≤ 0.001) thus highlighting hybridity in Jordanian culture where both indulgence and restraint exist.

Traditional values emphasize modesty and restraint in self-expression on the one hand, and the increased influence of electronic communication has encouraged young people to express themselves more openly, casually and freely in terms of feelings and emotional expression. These results agree with those of Eden et al. (2024a, 2024b) who pointed out that indulgent cultures communicate more expressively in digitals media, as well as those of Alam and Mohanty (2023a, 2023b), who found that restraint still shapes the tone of communication in Arab societies. All these ideas account for the phenomenon of Jordanian youth communicating in an expressive manner by adopting a more relaxed way of expressing themselves in digital communication without departing from adequate respect or cultural propriety.

While Collectivism was not an explicit predictor, it turned out to be the strongest indicator of online communication skills (β = 0.33, T = 14.34, p ≤ 0.001). This indicates the significance attached to group harmony, loyalty, and co-operation in Jordanian culture. After Collectivism, Uncertainty Avoidance and Long-Term Orientation were the next strongest, while Femininity and Indulgent showed effects of medium strength. Power Distance, although the weakest predictor, was nevertheless significant. This ranking indicates the cultural profile of Jordan as a society which values collaboration, structured interaction, and long-range planning but also must negotiate its way between traditional hierarchical customs and the more egalitarian modes of conduct of the electronic age.

These results confirm the effect of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions on online communication competence in Jordan, thereby extending international findings that digital settings mirror and modify traditional cultural orientations. Evidence has also been provided that collectivism, high uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation provide major inputs into Jordanian students’ potency to successfully articulate their thoughts online; femininity and indulgence add more dimensions to the communication process—expressing relationships. Even Power Distance, though weaker, gets a positive shot from clear authority structures and guidance found within online spaces. All these attests to an amalgamation of cultures in online communications in Jordan: very much collectivist and structured at heart but increasingly opening up toward new frontiers of relationship sensitivity and expressive self-presentation enabled by digital spaces.

The global model has a 93% explanatory power for Online Communication Skills showing very strong explanatory power.

This study is important to the existing literature in its extension of Hofstede’s culture construct into the context of digital communications. This study employed a new estimation methodology using SmartPLS-SEM, to empirically confirm the cultural effects on online communications. This study is one of the very few that has explored cultural influences in Jordan. The major contribution of this paper is establishing which factor acts as the strongest predictor of online communication skills. It records the way values of collectivism continue to assert themselves in digital interaction among university students.