Digital ethics concerns individuals’ and communities’ capacity to apply moral principles in online activities (Sari et al., 2024). In social media, it encompasses not just legal compliance but also moral awareness, social responsibility, and respect for human values (Rozehnal, 2022). Indonesia and Malaysia, with their collectivist and religious cultures, exemplify how Southeast Asian societies navigate the digital world while maintaining local values. Social media has fostered a new form of public morality that formal institutions do not fully regulate. In digital spaces, users enjoy significant freedom to express opinions, yet this is often not matched by adequate moral awareness (Barque-Duran et al., 2017). As Floridi et al. (2019) noted, the digital realm is an infosphere—a moral environment in which every act of sharing, uploading, or commenting carries ethical significance. Consequently, the actions of social media users should be viewed as moral acts with real social consequences, even when they occur in online settings.

In Indonesia, digital ethics are often connected to moral and religious values that influence social behaviour (Munawaroh and Marlina, 2025). Issues such as political hoaxes, religion-based hate speech, and online harassment have ignited active public ethical discussions (Abdullah et al., 2024). For example, during Indonesia’s COVID-19 pandemic, provocative content and disinformation spread rapidly through WhatsApp and Facebook (Kundhalini et al., 2023). In response, the government and civil society launched campaigns like #BijakBersosmed and #TurnBackHoax, emphasising the moral responsibility of internet users. However, these efforts are mainly reactive, addressing misconduct after it occurs rather than promoting a lasting awareness of moral principles.

Meanwhile, in Malaysia, digital ethics primarily focus on respectful communication and promoting inter-ethnic harmony. Given the country’s diverse ethnic and religious communities, online debates on sensitive topics can sometimes spark social tensions (Senin et al., 2024). The Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) enforces rules against content that may threaten national unity, such as insults to the 3Rs—Religion, Race, and Royalty (Shukri, 2023). This suggests that digital ethics in Malaysia prioritise safeguarding social stability and public order over individual freedom of expression.

A key challenge in digital ethics in both Indonesia and Malaysia is the tension between locally grounded cultural norms and globally circulating digital values embedded in platform architectures. Social media platforms, designed mainly within Western liberal traditions, prioritise visibility, engagement, and individual expression through algorithmic mechanisms (Cotter, 2019), often rewarding provocative or sensational content rather than socially responsible behaviour. Empirical studies reviewed in this article illustrate how this tension manifests in practice. In Indonesia, Mahy et al. (2022) show that influencer culture increasingly incentivises attention-seeking performances that conflict with traditional norms of modesty and social responsibility, while Dewi et al. (2023) document how algorithmic amplification has contributed to the rapid circulation of political hoaxes and hate speech. Similarly, Hartini et al. (2023) demonstrate that cultural expectations of politeness shape online communication patterns in Indonesia and Malaysia, yet these norms are frequently challenged by the expressive styles encouraged by social media environments. In Malaysia, Shukri (2023) further illustrates how the state responds to these tensions by imposing stricter content regulations and prioritising social harmony over unrestricted expression. These studies collectively suggest that the ethical challenges faced by users are not merely abstract moral dilemmas but concrete outcomes of the interaction between global digital infrastructures and locally embedded value systems.

Both countries acknowledge that legal policies alone are insufficient to advance digital ethics. Therefore, digital literacy education is crucial in cultivating long-term ethical awareness (Santhosh and Thiyagu, 2024). Indonesia, through its Siberkreasi programme, focuses on the four pillars of digital literacy—ethics, security, culture, and skills—and emphasises manners and social responsibility (Pambudi and Prihantoro, 2023). Malaysia has established the CyberSAFE (Cyber Security Awareness for Everyone) module to teach students ethical online behaviour, aiming to raise awareness of cyber threats and ways to protect against digital crime among children and youth (Hariana et al., 2025).

The effectiveness of both programmes remains limited due to their instructional, top-down approach. Digital ethics education often focuses on “dos and don’ts” instead of explaining the moral reasons behind actions. As Bandura (1991) explains, moral development involves reflective learning and real-life examples. Thus, future digital ethics education should incorporate approaches that consider local cultural values and encourage personal moral reflection to strengthen self-regulation capacity.

Digital ethics in Southeast Asian societies are deeply connected to their cultural value systems. Culture acts not only as a symbolic heritage but also as a moral framework that influences individual behaviour, including online conduct. For example, Indonesia and Malaysia, which share Eastern cultural principles, consistently practice politeness as a moral foundation that develops in social media activities (Hartini et al., 2023). However, digital globalisation presents challenges by increasing freedom of expression and individualism, which can sometimes conflict with the region’s collectivist traditions and ethos.

Indonesian cultural values such as gotong royong and Javanese norms of unggah-ungguh (politeness) are not merely social ideals but culturally embedded mechanisms that shape individual self-regulation in everyday online practices. Interpreted through Bandura’s (1991) framework, these values actively structure processes of self-monitoring, self-judgement, and self-reaction in social media use. The collectivist orientation inherent in gotong royong—voluntary cooperation oriented towards the collective good—encourages users to continuously monitor their online behaviour for its potential impact on others. This fosters a form of self-monitoring grounded not only in fear of social sanctions but also in an internalised moral commitment to solidarity, social harmony, and responsibility towards the wider community.

Similarly, the norm of unggah-ungguh guide’s self-judgement, whereby individuals evaluate their language, tone, and expressions against culturally embedded standards of appropriateness and respect. This often leads to self-restraint in digital interactions, such as avoiding confrontational language or controversial opinions to preserve social harmony (Fernando et al., 2022). These values also shape self-reaction, as users frequently adjust, revise, or suppress their online behaviour in anticipation of social consequences, embarrassment, or loss of social standing. In this way, gotong royong and unggah-ungguh function not merely as descriptive cultural traits but as culturally grounded self-regulatory mechanisms that directly structure ethical behaviour in digital environments.

Religiosity is a key aspect of Indonesian culture. Most Indonesians strongly associate morality with religious teachings, which influences their online behaviour. Platforms like Instagram and TikTok are rich with Islamic sermons, quotations, and moral guidance. Many digital influencers and religious teachers actively use social media to share religious messages (Syafaah et al., 2024). This trend illustrates how religious values are merging with digital technology. However, it also brings new challenges: heightened moral competition online, where traditional institutions no longer hold exclusive religious authority and are now also shaped by algorithmic popularity.

Meanwhile, Malaysian culture is rooted in collectivism, politeness, and religiosity, expressed through distinctive forms shaped by a multi-ethnic society and Malay Islamic values. The concepts of adab and budi bahasa capture their core principles. Adab involves moral politeness and conduct aligned with Islamic standards, while budi bahasa highlights respectful communication and social manners (Ali, 2022). In the digital realm, these values are vital for social media users to foster harmony and avoid offensive language, particularly in a society that is sensitive to racial and religious issues.

National initiatives like Klik Dengan Bijak demonstrate how the Malaysian government encourages civility online (Omar et al., 2022). These programmes emphasise the need for digital respect, which involves honouring different opinions while maintaining decency. On platforms such as Facebook and TikTok, Malaysians tend to communicate more cautiously and adhere to social norms more than Indonesians do (Hartini et al., 2023). This pattern is also influenced by a high awareness of legal standards and strict oversight by the MCMC of content that might breach public norms (Mustafa et al., 2025).

In the Malaysian context, self-censorship should be understood not merely as a restriction on freedom of expression but also as a contextually adaptive form of self-regulation within a multi-ethnic society. As Anuar et al. (2025) argue, the emphasis on inter-ethnic harmony rooted in the Rukun Negara philosophy encourages individuals to prioritise social cohesion and mutual respect in public communication, including in digital spaces. This social orientation shapes users’ decisions to restrain their expression to avoid offending religious or ethnic sensitivities, suggesting that self-censorship can function as an ethically motivated form of self-restraint.

At the same time, this adaptive function generates normative tensions. Yussoff and Nordin (2021) show that heightened sensitivity to race, religion, and authority can lead individuals to avoid expressing legitimate criticism on public issues. This suggests that self-censorship may become problematic when driven less by internalised moral reflection and more by fear of legal consequences or social backlash. Taken together, these findings indicate that self-censorship in Malaysia functions as a culturally embedded form of self-regulation, and its ethical value depends on whether it is grounded in reflective moral agency or shaped primarily by external coercion.

Despite the downsides, digital globalisation offers opportunities to revive local values (Poddar, 2024). Many Indonesian and Malaysian content creators leverage social media to showcase their cultural identity, promote batik and traditional foods, or share local wisdom. This exemplifies glocalisation—adapting global influences on local contexts. Essentially, digital culture does not replace traditional values; instead, it creates new platforms for their negotiation and reinterpretation.

Cultural values play a key role in shaping self-regulation or self-control among social media users. In collectivist societies like Indonesia and Malaysia, this regulation primarily stems from social awareness and a sense of shame, rather than from legal rules alone. Users often evaluate their actions based on how they are perceived publicly or how they might affect their social group. For instance, they might refrain from sharing content that could embarrass their family or community.

However, this kind of self-regulation driven by social pressure has its limits: it may lead to external compliance without promoting genuine moral reflection. The primary challenge is to transition from shame-based self-regulation to self-regulation rooted in moral understanding. Essentially, cultural values should be internalised via reflective education, enabling individuals to think ethically and independently in a progressively complex digital environment.

Self-regulation is essential in digital ethics. It involves an individual’s capacity to control their thoughts, feelings, and actions in accordance with personal and social moral standards; this process primarily includes self-monitoring, self-judgement, and self-reaction (Bandura, 1991). On social media, this regulation manifests as thoughtful posting, fact-checking, emotional control during discussions, and responsibility for the social impact of content.

Both individual awareness and cultural norms, as well as social pressures, influence self-regulation in Indonesia and Malaysia. Both societies, rooted in collectivist values, emphasise harmony, social shame, and group responsibility. As a result, digital self-regulation in Southeast Asia is uniquely influenced by social and cultural factors rather than personal reflection alone.

Users typically consider public perception and potential social repercussions before posting (Purboningsih et al., 2023). The fear of going viral or becoming a gossip acts as an informal social control, promoting restraint. For instance, breaches of decency or hate speech often led to mass shaming, account boycotts, or being reported to authorities by the community. Although these responses effectively discourage bad behaviour, they are external pressures—people act out of fear of social sanctions rather than from an internal moral compass. A more deliberate type of self-regulation is emerging among young Indonesians. Many are embracing the idea of “think before posting” as part of personal awareness, not just as social conformity (Iskandar et al., 2025). Consequently, a generation of users is forming that is more mindful of their digital reputation and the lasting impact of their online footprints.

Self-regulation extends beyond individuals to communities, where social norms and control mechanisms are standard. Many social media groups in both countries have established guidelines to promote positive interactions. For instance, the Indonesian influencer community within Siberkreasi, also known as the Indonesian Content Creator Society, follows an unwritten code emphasising honesty in promotions, anti-hoax efforts, and respect for audience privacy (Widyasari and Allert, 2019). Breaking these norms often results in social exclusion or a loss of trust from followers.

Apart from official communities, self-regulation occurs naturally through online cultural behaviours such as crowd correction and digital accountability. When false information is shared or hate speech occurs, other internet users often act as “norm enforcers” by clarifying, reprimanding, or reporting the offender. In Indonesia, this is called netizen policing, while in Malaysia, it is referred to as digital civility enforcement. Although this helps uphold public ethics, it can also cause issues such as digital persecution and cancel culture. Therefore, striking a balance between social oversight and digital empathy is crucial for sustaining healthy online communities.

Based on Bandura’s (1991) social cognitive theory of self-regulation, people mainly learn moral behaviour by observing others—imitating actions they see as appropriate or valued in their community. On social media, role models such as influencers, public figures, and religious leaders greatly influence how users develop their ethical conduct (Mahy et al., 2022).

In Indonesia, influencers like Najwa Shihab, Jerome Polin, and Gita Wirjawan are often seen as role models who exemplify positive, respectful, and socially responsible behaviour. Their way of communicating—blending openness with politeness—helps guide the younger generation in striking a balance between self-expression and ethical considerations. Conversely, influencers who display extreme lifestyles or spread sensational content tend to provoke strong reactions from the public (Megantari et al., 2025). This shows that society uses social rewards and punishments to regulate online behaviour by highlighting actual examples and their consequences.

Meanwhile, in Malaysia, figures such as Ebit Lew and Asma’ Harun have a significant influence on online ethics. They combine Islamic principles, kindness, and modern communication to promote digital social responsibility. The increasing popularity of religious social media influencers on platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok has garnered substantial followings and social interaction. This has resulted in behavioural changes and positive effects, particularly in areas such as religiosity and spirituality, subjective well-being, and self-regulation within an Islamic context (Ramlan et al., 2024). Their success demonstrates that ethical conduct can serve as social capital in online environments. Consequently, observational learning bridges cultural values and digital behaviour—strengthening self-control through role modelling rather than rules.

Self-regulation is essential for digital ethics; however, structural barriers hinder its implementation. Digital anonymity lets individuals act irresponsibly, as invisible identities weaken social controls and can lead to hate speech and cyberbullying (Ungerer, 2021). Social media algorithms tend to promote attention-grabbing content over ethical considerations, rewarding impulsive and extreme behaviour with popularity while minimising reflective content (Cotter, 2019). Additionally, the pressure to conform to virtual social standards—such as likes, followers, and comments—can cause users to constantly compare themselves, thereby diminishing their capacity for reflection.

In Indonesia, the blend of expressive culture and viral algorithms leads users to prioritise popularity over integrity. Conversely, in Malaysia, social pressure to uphold a moral reputation online fosters a culture of ethical perfectionism, where minor errors can provoke significant condemnation. In both countries, external social control frequently replaces individual self-regulation, rather than relying on personal reflection.

Based on a comparative analysis of digital ethics, cultural values, and self-control mechanisms in Indonesia and Malaysia, a conceptual framework called the’ contextual digital self-regulation model’ can be developed. This framework shows how social media users’ ethical behaviour arises from the interplay of three layers: (1) individual, (2) social, and (3) structural. Each layer complements the others, highlighting the distinct nature of Southeast Asian societies that blend personal moral conscience with collective cultural norms and public regulations.

Building on the comparative analysis, this article proposes the Contextual Digital Self-Regulation model as a conceptual contribution that extends existing theories of self-regulation. While Bandura’s (1991) social cognitive theory conceptualises self-regulation primarily as an intra-individual psychological process, and frameworks such as the Social Online Self-Regulation Theory focus primarily on behavioural dynamics within online environments, the present model foregrounds the cultural and structural embeddedness of ethical digital behaviour. It explicitly situates self-regulation within broader socio-cultural norms and institutional–technological contexts, which are often under-theorised in dominant individual-centred approaches.

Figure 2 illustrates the proposed Contextual Digital Self-Regulation model, which conceptualises ethical digital behaviour as emerging from the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of three interconnected layers: the individual layer (moral reflection and personal agency), the social layer (culturally embedded norms and collective expectations), and the structural layer (policy frameworks, educational systems, and platform architectures). The model differs from dominant individual-centred self-regulation frameworks by explicitly foregrounding the cultural and structural embeddedness of self-regulation. The arrows indicate that influence flows in multiple directions, rather than hierarchically, emphasising that each layer both shapes and is shaped by the others. In this way, the model offers a context-sensitive framework for understanding digital self-regulation, particularly in collectivist and non-Western settings such as Southeast Asia.

The initial layer emphasises the psychological and moral facets of the individual. Here, self-regulation is driven by reflective skills, digital empathy, and a sense of personal responsibility in online environments. According to Bandura’s (1991) framework, self-regulation involves three processes: self-monitoring (being aware of one’s behaviour), self-judgement (evaluating actions based on moral standards), and self-reaction (aligning behaviour with personal values). In Indonesian and Malaysian contexts, this aspect is heavily shaped by religious principles and traditional morals. Individuals with spiritual and reflective awareness are more capable of resisting impulsive behaviours, such as anger, the spread of misinformation, or online attacks on others. Nonetheless, difficulties occur when personal morality remains superficial, serving only as symbolic adherence to social norms rather than fostering genuine critical reflection. Consequently, this layer underscores the importance of reflective education that fosters intrinsic moral awareness, rather than mere external compliance. Digital ethics should be seen as a deliberate choice to act rightly, driven by a sense of moral duty as a digital citizen, rather than fear of social or legal repercussions.

The second layer illustrates the socio-cultural factors that influence digital behaviour. In collectivist nations like Indonesia and Malaysia, social control and cultural norms strongly influence how people behave online. Shared values such as gotong royong, tepa selira, adab, and budi bahasa function as moral guides that promote rasa malu (shame culture), respect, and group responsibility. These norms often lead to self-regulation within communities, such as crowd correction, netizen oversight, and social monitoring, all grounded in a sense of shared responsibility and solidarity. When ethical standards are breached, the community typically responds with reprimands, criticism, or boycotts. While these mechanisms effectively uphold morality, they can also lead to excessive social pressure if not balanced with empathy and fairness. Therefore, the social layer acts as a mediator between individual morals and external influences, reinforcing cultural norms but requiring careful guidance to avoid superficial moral conformity. For example, in Indonesia, cooperation and digital courtesy can evolve into a participatory ethic fostering online empathy. Similarly, in Malaysia, manners and politeness can be expanded into digital civility principles that promote a balance between freedom and social responsibility.

The third layer encompasses the macro context that shapes digital behaviour, including legal policies, digital literacy education, and the social media platform ecosystem itself. Regulations like Indonesia’s ITE Law and Malaysia’s Communications and Multimedia Act set legal boundaries to prevent digital misuse. However, laws alone are insufficient without an ethical education system and thoughtful technology design. Digital literacy programs grounded in local cultural values are vital. Initiatives such as Siberkreasi in Indonesia and Klik Dengan Bijak in Malaysia are notable. However, they should focus more on cultivating moral reasoning and digital social awareness, rather than just listing rules. Additionally, the structural layer involves designing ethical digital platforms. Social media algorithms must consider their social influence. Continuing to promote extreme or provocative content undermines users’ ability to regulate themselves. Ultimately, ethical responsibility rests not just with users but also with technology companies and policymakers.

This model significantly advances cross-cultural research on digital ethics by highlighting the role of local context and social values in shaping digital behaviour. It encourages us to examine how cultural factors, traditions, and social norms influence interactions in the digital space. Additionally, it questions universal approaches to digital ethics, which usually emphasise Western-centric, individualistic values. Overall, this model can facilitate the development of practices and policies that are better aligned with the specific needs and values of diverse local communities.