The rise of social media has intensified body dissatisfaction among young women, primarily due to repeated exposure to idealized and digitally enhanced body images (Fioravanti et al., 2022; Jackson et al., 2020; Jarrar et al., 2022). These portrayals, shaped by societal beauty norms and reinforced through editing tools, promote rigid appearance standards that encourage upward social comparisons and the internalization of appearance-based values (Jarrar et al., 2022; Tiggemann and Velissaris, 2020; Wang et al., 2020). In China, platforms such as Xiaohongshu amplify these effects by prominently featuring content aligned with societal beauty ideals, including slenderness and fair skin (Lang et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2020). The widespread use of AI filters and smartphone editing tools has further normalized image manipulation, making unattainable beauty standards increasingly pervasive (Hausken, 2024; Tiggemann, 2022).

The interactive nature of social media exacerbates body image concerns. On platforms like Xiaohongshu, users frequently discuss appearance-related anxieties, fostering emotional contagion and group polarization. This environment contributes to body dissatisfaction, restrictive eating behaviors, and elevated risks of eating disorders (Carter and Vartanian, 2022; Ibrahim et al., 2025). When young women fail to meet these unrealistic standards, they often experience frustration and shame (Liu et al., 2022). Collectively, constant exposure to idealized imagery, peer comparisons, and emotionally charged interactions significantly harm young women's body image and mental wellbeing.

Western research demonstrates that exposure to thin-ideal content on social media reduces self-esteem and increases body dissatisfaction and anxiety (Tylka et al., 2023). Similar trends are evident in China, where viral challenges like the “A4 Waist” and “BM Girls” promote extreme thinness, heightening body-related distress (Jackson et al., 2021). Chinese women report higher levels of appearance anxiety than men, a disparity driven by media glorification of thinness and patriarchal norms that equate female beauty with social capital (Wang et al., 2021). These pressures also foster self-objectification, further intensifying body image concerns (Budenz et al., 2022). Together, these findings underscore the growing prevalence of appearance-related anxiety among young Chinese women.

In response to these pressures, the body positivity movement advocates for the acceptance of diverse body types. However, despite its intention to promote inclusivity, the movement has been criticized for still placing excessive focus on appearance (Legault and Sago, 2022; Pellizzer and Wade, 2023). For example, advocates of body neutrality argue that attention should shift from appearance to bodily function (Pellizzer and Wade, 2023). In line with this perspective, researchers and advocates have increasingly promoted functionality-focused interventions as a healthier and more holistic approach to fostering a positive body image (Alleva and Tylka, 2021). Unlike focusing solely on external appearance, this perspective encourages individuals to value their body's multifunctional capacities, including external physical activities (e.g., running and stretching), internal biological processes (e.g., digestion and recovery from illness), and embodied experiences (e.g., physical-mental wellbeing and social communication; Alleva and Tylka, 2021). In other words, body functionality goes beyond the simple idea of physical movement; it encompasses the entire physiological system of bodily operations.

This intervention was inspired by two theories. First, Franzoi (1995) proposed that the body can be viewed either as an object or a functional entity. In relation to this, Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) proposed objectification theory, which suggests that when women are frequently viewed as objects, they may self-objectify, and self-objectification is a major factor contributing to negative body image. Therefore, based on these two theories, reducing the objectified presentation of women and increasing the functional presentation may help alleviate self-objectification and, in turn, improve body image. As a result, functionality-focused interventions have emerged as a promising approach to addressing these concerns.

On this basis, various studies have indicated that more body functionality-focused interventions would arouse more positive body image (Brooks et al., 2023; Mulgrew and Courtney, 2022; Vandenbosch et al., 2022). This approach emphasizes what the body can do rather than how it looks, which helps individuals appreciate their bodies for their capabilities and strengths rather than their physical appearance (Alleva et al., 2016). For example, by focusing on the functionality of the body, individuals can develop greater appreciation for activities such as running, lifting, or even everyday movements, leading to an overall more positive and empowered view of their bodies. Moreover, images that depict physical activities can theoretically inspire individuals to engage in more exercise and adopt healthier eating habits (Jeronimo and Carraca, 2022). These images serve as visual reminders of the benefits of an active lifestyle and can motivate people to incorporate physical activities into their daily routines. The portrayal of functional activities can highlight the positive impact of exercise on overall wellbeing, encouraging viewers to prioritize their health and fitness. This motivational effect can contribute to better physical health and a more positive body image, as individuals begin to value their bodies for their abilities rather than solely for their appearance (Linardon et al., 2023). Therefore, functionality-focused interventions may buffer the negative impacts of appearance-based content on social media.

In recent years, interventions emphasizing functionality have gained popularity in body image therapy and awareness campaigns (Linardon et al., 2023). For example, interventions like journaling about the body's capabilities, yoga, and exposure to nature have proven effective in promoting positive body image (Alleva and Tylka, 2021). These interventions have yielded positive outcomes in reducing body anxiety and increasing body appreciation across diverse demographics. However, other forms of intervention, apart from these, have shown only small-to-moderate improvements in women's body image (Alleva and Tylka, 2021).

While functionality-focused content is often seen as a promising strategy to promote positive body image, studies reveal that many of the images shared on social media still depict thin-ideal models (Mulgrew and Courtney, 2022). One example is “fitspiration,” which features muscular and toned women rather than those with extreme thinness, yet this still perpetuates body standards that can negatively impact women's body image (Dignard and Jarry, 2021). This narrow portrayal equates body functionality with a specific appearance standard, reinforcing the thin ideal under the guise of fitness. However, the concept of body functionality should encompass diverse body types, including full-figured models, offering a more inclusive and potentially effective approach to functionality-based interventions (Alleva and Tylka, 2021).

Notably, previous studies have consistently shown that exposure to full-figured models can significantly enhance women's positive body image and attitudes (de Lenne et al., 2023; Furnham and Wallhead, 2025). Given this evidence, it is essential to include full-figured model conditions in the scope of functionality-focused research and interventions. Doing so allows for a broader understanding of how functionality-focused interventions on social media images may influence viewers' perceptions of their own bodies.

Relevant studies have further illustrated the complexity of functionality-focused imagery by employing similar experimental conditions involving both thin-ideal and full-figured models. Notably, two studies used such designs and reported consistent findings: in thin-ideal conditions, functionality-focused interventions did not lead to significant improvements in participants' body appreciation or functionality appreciation (Mulgrew et al., 2020; Williamson and Karazsia, 2018). However, a key distinction emerged in Mulgrew et al.'s (2020) study. Among participants who viewed average-sized models, those exposed to functionality-focused (i.e., active) poses reported lower body satisfaction and greater upward functionality-based comparisons compared to those who viewed posed-only models. This suggests that functionality-focused imagery, especially when it features individuals performing high-skill physical activities, may inadvertently trigger negative social comparisons. Viewers may feel inadequate when they perceive themselves as unable to replicate such advanced actions, thereby reducing the intended positive impact of the intervention.

In summary, the actual effects of functionality-focused imagery may vary significantly depending on model body types, poses, and display contexts. According to sociocultural theory, body image perceptions are shaped by cultural norms and values (Scott and Palincsar, 2013). This is exemplified in cultural narratives where fatness is constructed as desirable rather than deviant (Team, 2020). In the Chinese context, traditional aesthetics historically favored round faces and fuller figures (Jung, 2018), but contemporary beauty standards have shifted markedly toward thinness. Recent feminist discourses on Chinese social media increasingly emphasize fitness and body diversity (Lang et al., 2023), suggesting a potential transition from the thin-ideal to a fitness-oriented ideal. Supporting this shift, Lee (2024) found that Chinese women expressed strong admiration for “fitspiration” content (a portmanteau of “fit” and “inspiration”) on domestic platforms, which is a stark contrast to Western critiques of such imagery. These culturally distinct responses may lead to divergent outcomes in functionality-focused social media interventions. Against this backdrop, exploring the effects of functionality-focused interventions becomes both timely and meaningful, especially in culturally specific contexts such as China, where empirical evidence remains scarce. However, systematic research in East Asian cultural settings remains limited. Therefore, empirical studies that adopt culturally sensitive and body-diverse approaches are needed to explore the boundaries and mechanisms of functionality-based image interventions.

The present study aims to verify the extent to which functionality-focused interventions on social media can promote positive body image in the Chinese context. By including independent variables like images of thin models, full-figured models, models engaged in functional activities, and posed-only models, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of how model presentations influence young Chinese women's body image. The findings are expected to draw conclusions regarding whether functionality-focused interventions on social media can promote positive body image for young Chinese women.

Based on the past theories and studies, five hypotheses are proposed:

The study employed a multistage recruitment process beginning with an initial pool of 680 female undergraduate students aged 18–22 years from a university in Jiangxi Province, China. Through institutional email invitations containing the study information sheet and survey link, with two follow-up reminders sent at 1-week intervals, we achieved a final sample of 420 participants (response rate: 61.8%). The Wenjuanxing online survey platform facilitated data collection, with its built-in response tracking system enabling real-time monitoring of recruitment progress. Participants were randomly selected from eligible candidates identified through university registration databases using an SPSS-generated random number sequence. Rigorous eligibility verification included: (1) demographic confirmation (age/gender/ethnicity through self-report), (2) attention check items embedded in the survey instrument. Twelve initially selected participants were excluded during screening due to eligibility mismatches, with replacement cases randomly drawn from the remaining pool using identical procedures. The final sample (N = 420) demonstrated a mean age of 19.81 years (SD = 1.34) and mean BMI of 20.34 (SD = 3.60), with all participants confirming Asian Chinese ethnicity. The study utilized the Wenjuanxing online survey platform for data collection, with its automated tracking system monitoring timestamped responses, IP address verification, and completion rate thresholds throughout the recruitment period. No technical anomalies or protocol deviations were detected (system sensitivity: 100% for identifying incomplete submissions).

Before data collection, ethical approval was obtained from the Universiti Malaya Research Ethics Committee (UMREC). The participants were first invited to join a WeChat group, where the questionnaire link was distributed via the Wenjuanxing platform. Informed consent was obtained at the start of the survey, followed by a series of initial questions to confirm eligibility. Information such as perceived sex, age, weight, and height was collected, and body mass index (BMI) was calculated for further analysis. The survey automatically ended if “male” was selected in the gender field.

To measure baseline metrics, participants completed a preexposure assessment via Likert scales and a visual analog scale (VAS) to evaluate state body appreciation and state functionality appreciation. They were then randomly assigned to one of five image sets: (a) TA, (b) TP, (c) FA, (d) FP, or (e) S. Each set included seven images featuring Asian models, with participants viewing each image for 30 s before answering follow-up questions.

The study employed a between-subjects experimental design, a methodology commonly used in body image research to examine the effects of media exposure on psychological outcomes (Mulgrew et al., 2020; Williamson and Karazsia, 2018). This design enabled the comparison of participants' responses to different types of image stimuli across distinct groups, thereby minimizing potential carryover effects that could arise in within-subjects designs. Upon completing the questionnaire, participants were shown a thank-you message, signaling the end of the experiment. The entire process, including informed consent, exposure to stimuli, and survey completion, lasted ~9 min.

Table 2 shows the description of participants' basic information. The final sample consisted of 420 Asian Chinese female participants, with a mean age of 19.81 years (SD = 1.34) and a mean BMI of 20.34 (SD = 3.60). Based on the WHO Asia-Pacific guidelines, 22.6% were classified as underweight (BMI <18.5), 56.0% as having normal weight (BMI 18.5–22.9), 11.9% as overweight (BMI 23.0–24.9), and 9.5% as obese (BMI ≥ 25.0).

Table 3 summarizes the means and variations for each scale (including CV adjusted scores), providing a basis for comparing the specific impacts of different imagery stimuli. The results revealed distinct patterns across experimental conditions: for the thin-ideal groups (TP, TA), the covariate-adjusted posttest scores (post-CV adjusted BAS-2 and FAS) were consistently lower than their respective pretest scores (pre-BAS-2, pre-FAS). Conversely, the full-figured groups (FP, FA) and Scenery group (S) demonstrated higher posttest scores compared to baseline measurements. Notably, the thin active group (TA) showed higher covariate-adjusted posttest scores (BAS-2 = 37.46, FAS = 560.84) than their posed-only counterparts (TP) across both measures (BAS-2 = 32.54, FAS = 503.59). While the two full-figured groups (FP, FA) showed minor differences in their covariate-adjusted posttest scores.

The first contrast (models vs. scenery) revealed a significant effect, F _{(1, 414)} = 124.41, p <0.001, ηp² = 0.379, indicating that exposure to model images significantly reduced body appreciation compared to the control group. The second contrast (thin vs. full models) was also significant, F _{(1, 414)} = 27.00, p <0.001, ηp² = 0.117, showing that thin models elicited lower body appreciation than full-sized models, supporting H1. The third contrast (thin posed vs. thin active) showed a significant difference, F _{(1, 414)} = 10.90, p <0.001, ηp² = 0.051, indicating that posed images further decreased body appreciation within the thin model group, thus H2 was not supported. The fourth contrast (full posed vs. full active) was not significant, F _{(1, 414)} = 3.57, p = 0.060, ηp² = 0.017, suggesting that pose had no effect within the full-sized model group, leading to the rejection of H4.

The first contrast (models vs. scenery) revealed a significant effect, F _{(1, 414)} = 165.04, p <0.001, ηp² = 0.447, indicating that model images significantly reduced functionality appreciation compared to the control condition. The second contrast (thin vs. full models) also showed a significant effect, F _{(1, 414)} = 7.49, p <0.001, ηp² = 0.035, with thin models associated with lower functionality appreciation, supporting H1. The third contrast (thin posed vs. thin active) was significant, F _{(1, 414)} = 9.28, p <0.001, ηp² = 0.044, and the fourth contrast (full posed vs. full active) revealed a strong effect, F _{(1, 414)} = 48.10, p <0.001, ηp² = 0.191, indicating that posing notably decreased functionality appreciation, especially within the full-model group. As a result, H3 was not supported, while H5 was supported. Table 4 shows the summary of hypothesis testing results.

Consistent with previous research, our study revealed that viewing full-figured models significantly increased body and functionality appreciation, while viewing thin-ideal models had the opposite effect, decreasing both (Hendrickse et al., 2021). This result underscores that the body size of the model is a primary determinant influencing young women's body image. According to sociocultural theory, two key mechanisms that influence body image are the internalization of appearance ideals (Jung et al., 2022) and appearance-based social comparison (Fioravanti et al., 2022). In Chinese society, cultural norms often idealize thinness as the standard of beauty for women (Wu et al., 2021). As a result, young Chinese women are often influenced by this pervasive ideology and internalize “thinness” as their aesthetic benchmark, shaping their perceptions of beauty (Jackson et al., 2021). Festinger (1954) further suggests that the direction of social comparisons, whether upward or downward, depends on individuals' internal mindsets, determining whether they feel superior or inferior to the models in images. When viewing thin-ideal models, participants are influenced by societal norms that promote such body types as the ideal. Consequently, when they perceive their own bodies as less slender than those of the models, they engage in upward comparisons, leading to self-dissatisfaction (Tiggemann and Polivy, 2010). In contrast, when exposed to full-figured models, whose body types diverge from the societal ideal, participants are less likely to engage in upward comparisons. In fact, if participants themselves have thin body types, they may even engage in downward comparisons, which could reinforce a sense of superiority (Vogel et al., 2014).

Recent studies support these findings, suggesting that exposure to idealized body images exacerbates negative body image, whereas exposure to non-idealized models can have a positive influence. For example, Hendrickse et al. (2021) highlight the detrimental effects of thin-ideal models on women's self-objectification. Similarly, Rodgers et al. (2021) argue that media portrayals adhering to narrow beauty standards intensify feelings of inadequacy and body dissatisfaction. On the other hand, studies have shown that exposure to overweight models can promote positive body image and reduce body dissatisfaction. For example, Moreno-Domínguez et al. (2018) suggest that seeing overweight models may improve body image. Clayton et al. (2017) also reported that participants who viewed plus-sized models had the highest body satisfaction and the least amount of social comparison. Reducing the frequency of appearance comparisons can help mitigate upward comparisons, although such comparisons often occur automatically upon first glance (Mulgrew and Courtney, 2022). This evidence suggests that exposing young women to social media images featuring models who deviate from societal ideals, particularly average and plus-sized models, may reduce upward social comparisons and foster positive body image.

The results of this study show that, within thin conditions, viewing functionality-focused model images can lead to greater body and functionality appreciation than viewing posed-only images. This result aligns with that of Alleva et al. (2016), who suggested that emphasizing body functionality can foster a more positive body image. Moreover, some of the latest relevant studies also indicate the positive effect of functionality-focused interventions in promoting positive body image. For example, Brooks et al. (2023) and Walker and Murray (2022) demonstrated the positive effects of body functionality-focused ME (FME) on patients' state body satisfaction, indicating that functionality-focused interventions can reduce body dissatisfaction and promote more positive body image. The result may be due to the different comparison processes between posed images and functional images. The posed-only images emphasize women's appearance attributes, triggering upward social comparisons (Festinger, 1954) as viewers evaluate themselves against idealized beauty standards. According to social comparison theory, such upward comparisons with unattainable ideals often lead to negative self-evaluations (Festinger, 1954), thereby exacerbating more appearance-based social comparison and self-objectification among young women. In contrast, functionality-focused images focus on the physical capability of bodies, moving viewers' attention from their appearances to functionalities, which can potentially decrease the frequency of appearance comparisons and improve their appreciation of functionality. Hence, this result provides evidence for the use of functionality-focused images as an intervention to reduce negative body images from ideal images on social media.

However, some studies have expressed different opinions on the positive effects of functionality-focused images. Mulgrew et al. (2020) and Williamson and Karazsia (2018) indicate that there is no significant effect of presenting functionality-focused images on participants' overall body image. This is probably due to the mere presence of functionality-focused content, as Alleva and Tylka (2021) noted that some functionality-based images depict only physical capabilities and internal processes rather than a holistic sense of body functionality. In addition, these types of images still portray unrealistic images or even more unattainable images than appearance-focused images because of the presence of muscles (Dignard and Jarry, 2021). Some studies support this view; for example, Mulgrew and Tiggemann (2018) suggest that functionality-based depictions, reflections, and comparisons may produce even worse outcomes than those based on appearance. Similarly, Mulgrew et al. (2020) noted that viewing functional images can significantly decrease appearance and functionality satisfaction and that women may not be able to effectively buffer the negative influence of functional ideal images. These studies present the negative side of functionality-focused images, providing the opposite view on this topic as in this study.

These differing results may be attributed to the lack of critical discourse surrounding the “muscle ideal” imagery on Chinese social media. Most women in China continue to admire muscular female bodies without question. Chinese feminism on social media primarily focuses on resisting the “pale, young, slim” ideal (Liu and Li, 2024), with much of the positive body content promoting women's health, linking fitness and healthy eating with positive self-image (Xu et al., 2023). Additionally, the exceptional performances of Chinese female athletes in international competitions, widely celebrated by domestic media, have positioned them as symbols of feminist empowerment and equality (Gao, 2013). The muscular strength and power cultivated through fitness also aligns with the growing “#girls help girls” movement promoted on Chinese social media (Yang and Hu, 2024). As a result, Chinese women tend to admire muscular bodies sculpted through diet and exercise rather than critique them (Lee, 2024), often subconsciously associating such functional and muscular physiques with feminist ideals, perceiving these practices as effective strategies for combating body anxiety, and enhancing body positivity. Conversely, many Western scholars have highlighted the problematic nature of “fitspiration,” arguing that it represents a new form of aesthetic domination over women (Jeronimo and Carraca, 2022). Some have even described it as “a wolf in sheep's clothing,” emphasizing how these images disguise themselves as positive body content while continuing to perpetuate body anxieties under the guise of promoting health (Uhlmann et al., 2018). For Western women, the awareness of these pitfalls has allowed them to identify and critique the underlying negative messages conveyed by such imagery, leading to more negative feedback in surveys more readily. Conversely, Chinese women, influenced by the societal glorification of athletic women and the lack of critical awareness surrounding the “muscle ideal,” may still perceive such imagery positively. Even when experiencing subtle negative psychological effects, they may consciously provide survey responses that align with prevailing societal expectations rather than their personal feelings.

Notably, the research findings revealed that, even after adjusting for CV, the thin active group presented significantly greater average levels of body and functionality appreciation (M_BAS= 37.46, SE = 0.58; M_FAS= 560.84, SE = 6.30) than did the thin active group (M_BAS= 32.50, SE = 0.58; M_FAS= 503.59, SE = 6.26). However, both groups exhibited a notable decline in posttest scores relative to their pretest scores. This finding indicates that while functionality-focused interventions can partially buffer the negative body image impacts of thin-ideal posed images, the mere inclusion of thin models results in a significant reduction in participants' body image. Therefore, the primary strategy for promoting positive body image remains reducing media exposure to thin-ideal body types, with functionality-focused interventions serving as supplementary measures. For example, showcasing more representations of individuals with average or fuller body types while engaging in sports or physical activities could be a more effective approach. Moreover, the findings revealed that the full active group demonstrated significantly greater appreciation of body functionality (M_BAS= 40.68, SE = 0.59; M_FAS= 593.58, SE = 6.27) than did the full posed group (M_BAS= 40.65, SE = 0.58; M_FAS= 591.94, SE = 6.26). This underscores the positive impact of such practices, supporting the inclusion of diverse body types in active contexts to enhance body image and functionality appreciation.

This study has several limitations that should be addressed in future research. First, the sample consisted solely of Asian Chinese female university students aged between 18 and 22 years, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to individuals of different ages, genders, or cultural backgrounds. Although participants showed variation in BMI, the proportion of those classified as overweight or obese was relatively low at 21.4%, and the average BMI remained within the normal range. This limited representation of higher-BMI individuals may constrain the applicability of the results to populations with greater body diversity and reduce the ability to examine differential responses to media image exposure across weight groups. In addition, individuals are more likely to relate to models who resemble themselves (de Lenne et al., 2023), so the absence of full-figured participants may have weakened the effectiveness of full-figured imagery stimuli in the experiment. Future research should aim to recruit more diverse samples, particularly including individuals with higher body weight, to better understand the variability in media image processing and to enhance the ecological validity of functionality-focused interventions.

Second, the study did not systematically assess potential differences in comparison processes (e.g., upward vs. downward) between functional and posed images, which have been shown to differentially impact body image outcomes (O'Brien et al., 2009). This methodological limitation leaves open the possibility that directional comparison effects may partially account for the observed differences in body perception. Future studies should incorporate standardized measures of both social comparison tendency and directionality, particularly to examine whether functional imagery's apparent benefits may stem from inducing more benign forms of upward comparison (e.g., inspirational vs. detrimental) relative to posed images.

Last, while our findings suggest functionality-based images may buffer some negative effects of traditional thin ideals, we acknowledge this intervention could potentially promote new forms of bodily standards. The observed post-test declines in body satisfaction across both groups suggest that presenting thin models, even in a functionality-focused context, may continue to evoke idealization effects. This limitation suggests our paradigm may reflect a partial shift from aesthetic to “functional ideals” rather than complete liberation from comparison processes. Future research should directly assess whether functional ideals emerge as distinct comparison targets and examine their differential impacts.