An exhaustive literature search was conducted using multiple databases, including Emerald Insight, Dimensions, JSTOR, and EBSCO, to minimize the risk of omitting relevant studies. This multi-database approach adheres to best practices for systematic reviews, ensuring comprehensive coverage of the topic. Boolean operators “OR” and “AND” were employed to combine keywords, synonyms, related terms, and their variations. The search keywords included:

The search focused on publications from 2010 to 2023, a period that saw significant advancements in CIS initiatives, such as the establishment of the Climate Services Partnership (CSP) in 2011, the Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) adaptation focus for Africa in 2012, and the launch of the Climate Services for Resilient Development (CSRD) Partnership in 2017 (Kijazi et al., 2019; Wilke and Wright, 2015; WMO, 2015).

Database search results ranged from 68,200 to 2,740,000 articles on Dimensions, 531 to 6,437 articles on Emerald Insight, 56 to 254,722 items on JSTOR, and 12,980 articles on EBSCO. Relevant articles cited within the identified publications were also reviewed for inclusion.

This systematic review began with 5,714 records identified databases selected. The screening process involved removing duplicate articles and evaluating the relevance of search results based on their titles and abstracts. The process excluded 5,050 records for not focusing study criteria. The following inclusion criteria were applied:

Studies which are non-SSA focus, non-farmers-level data, not in 2010–2023, duplicates, lack climate information services relevance, not accessible and non-peer reviewed regarded not meeting these criteria and were excluded. Of the 664 full-text article retrieved, 263 were excluded due to publication range (n = 241) or inaccessible (n = 22). Eligibility assessment of 401 articles led to the exclusion of 348 studies, primarily for lacking focus on small-holder farmers, CIS internensions of farm-level data. Ultimately, 53 studies were included. This process refined the selection to 53 articles, representing 14% of the initially screened papers. These articles were included in the systematic review, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Figure 1).

The systematic review iclused 53 peer reviewed studies from six Sub-Saharan African countries (Ghana, Kenya, Senegal, Tanzania, South Afica and Burkina Faso) identified through searches in Emerlad Insight, Dimenssions, JSTOR and EBSCO that met inclusion criteria. These criteria were focusing on small-holder farmers, daily or seasonal Climate Information Services (CIS) intervations, and farmer-level data, published between 2010 and 2023. Other Sub-Saharan African countries were exluded because were not identified in these databases that fully satisfies these criterias, often due to focus on broader climate adaptation strategies rather than specific CIS intervetions or lack on farmer-level outcomes (specifically small-holders). These absence may reflect a gap in accessible peer-reviewed CIS literature for majority agricultural significant countries within the scope of our search, highlighting an area of future research.

To ensure consistency and comparability across studies, a standardized extraction form was developed. This form was designed to capture key data elements across four critical categories:

The reviewed literature categorizes Climate Infromation Services (CIS) into short-term and long-term services, offering data on weather conditions, extreme events, and advisory services (Diouf et al., 2019; Guido et al., 2020; Tall et al., 2018; Reddy, 2019). A structured overview of CIS types across the agricultural value chain reveals specific needs in farm management activities. For instance, studies revealed that weather forecasts are mainly employed for early farm preparation and planning such as seed selection and planting, while soil health data are mainly relevant for crop management (Ouedraogo et al., 2022; Khatibu et al., 2021; Diouf et al., 2019; Guido et al., 2020). Similar findings was also observed by Reddy (2019) in studying India’s Soil Health Card Scheme, as necessary information to optimize fertilizer use in SSA. Likewise, farmers use CIS related to the soil moisture data relevant for harvest timing and crop storage management [as suggested by Tesfaye et al. (2021)], and market price forecasts infromation for post-harvest marketing [argued by Mubiru et al. (2020)]. However, there is a notable gap in medium- to long-term comprehensive systems specifically tailored for decision-makers. Studies such as those by Diouf et al. (2019) and Guido et al. (2020) also highlight gender and geographic disparities in CIS preferences, emphasizing the need for tailored outreach programs. For instance, in Ghana, while farmers have access to CIS, the information is often limited to rainfall, temperature, and windstorm forecasts (Baffour-Ata et al., 2022). Conversely, farmers actively utilize weather forecasts for critical decisions, including crop selection, plot placement, and production planning (Muema et al., 2018).

The communication theory suggests diverse dissemination strategies to ensure accessibility and utilization, considering audience preferences and context (West et al., 2010). Drawing on comparative lessons, effective methods can be customized: mobile apps with visual aids for soil health and moisture data reported to significantly increase uptake (Khatibu et al., 2021; Tesfaye et al., 2021), while radio reported for weather forecasts and increased adoption among women in Kenya, (Sirima et al., 2022). Likewise SMS and field schools for crop advice revealed a higher engagement in Burkina Faso, (Zougmoré et al., 2018), and extension agents trained in local languages for ease market advice (Baffour-Ata et al., 2022). Gender-specific preferences are evident, with men favoring extension agents, print media, and television, while women prefer radios and social groups (Sirima et al., 2022; Ngigi and Muange, 2022). For example, Sirima et al. (2022) found that radio broadcasting significantly increased women’s forecast adoption, demonstrating the effectiveness of targeted channels. Studies support using various channels—radio, TV, newspapers, advisory services, and extension officers—for wider dissemination (Baffour-Ata et al., 2022; Muema et al., 2018). Innovative methods, such as diagrammatic forecasts combined with personal interactions, printed materials, and mobile applications, have also proven effective, particularly in semi-arid regions (Ouedraogo et al., 2022; Khatibu et al., 2021). In Tanzania, Khatibu et al. (2021) reported CIS uptake significantly increased in semi-arid areas using mobile apps, highlighting the potential of digital tools. These also evident in Reddy’s (2019) visual aid approach which when adjusted for SSA’s literacy challenges, suggest a multi-method strategy could enhance CIS delivery. This blend of traditional and digital tools is gaining traction, though debates persist regarding the optimal dissemination methods for CIS.

The reviewed articles categorize these factors into socio-economic, cultural, and institutional domains. Socio-economic disparities, particularly gender gaps, significantly influence CIS access and usage. Men are more likely to access CIS due to greater social interaction opportunities and socio-cultural norms (Ngigi and Muange, 2022; Sirima et al., 2022; Amwata et al., 2018). For instance, in Kenya, Ngigi and Muange (2022) found that men’s access was significantly higher due to community meetings, contrasting with women’s limited outreach. Economic factors, such as the willingness to pay for CIS, also play a pivotal role. Farmers willing to pay for CIS are more likely to utilize it, influenced by cost, income levels, trust in service quality, and availability of supplementary services (Ouedraogo et al., 2022; Amwata et al., 2018; Nyadzi et al., 2021).

Cultural influences, including religious beliefs and traditional practices, also affect CIS adoption (Nyadzi et al., 2021). Nyadzi et al. (2021) in Senegal noted that aligning CIS with local rituals significantly increased adoption among traditional farmers. Integrating cultural considerations into CIS dissemination strategies is critical for broader adoption. Institutional factors, such as the reliability, timeliness, and incorporation of indigenous knowledge in CIS, are equally crucial. These factors influence the quality and relevance of CIS, thereby impacting their adoption (Makuvaro et al., 2023; Baffour-Ata et al., 2022). Policy integration of CIS remains limited in SSA, largely due to policymakers’ insufficient understanding of climate change and institutional capacity constraints (Sirima et al., 2022). Tailored policies are essential to enhance CIS access, particularly for smallholder farmers. In Bukina Faso study reported that only 15% of policy-makers engaged with CIS training, highlighting capacity gaps (Ouedraogo et al., 2023).

The role of Climate Information Services (CIS) in influencing farmers’ decision-making processes in Sub-Saharan Africa has been a topic of research and discussion. Research has shown that CIS aids farmers in forecasting weather conditions for agricultural seasons, yet different groups of farmers face constraints and disparities in its effectiveness and adoption. One notable finding is the gender disparity in the perceived effectiveness and adoption of CIS. Women tend to have a more positive opinion of CIS and its impact on farm decisions compared to men (Ngigi and Muange, 2022). The study illustrated that women positive percetions led to a higher use of CIS for planting decision (Ngigi and Muange, 2022). Other studies, however, indicate that men are more likely to access CIS due to greater social interaction opportunities and established social norms favoring male socialization. Research also reveals that the impact of CIS varies based on the crops under cultivation. For example, farmers in Tanzania effectively increased maize production using CIS compared to sorghum (Khatibu et al., 2021). The inherent benefits of maize farming and the suitability of CIS for maize cultivation account for this difference (ibid.). Ouedraogo et al. (2023) carried out a study in Burkina Faso that included 170 farmers from 17 villages. The experiment subjected 11 villages to CIS, with the remaining 6 villages serving as control groups. The study showed that farmers exposed to CIS modified their crop management practices, leading to a significant increase in productivity.

Several studies have documented positive outcomes from CIS adoption. Farmers exposed to CIS have experienced improvements in crop management practices and productivity (Wamalwa et al., 2016). For instance, the study by Ouedraogo et al. (2023) revealed that CIS users in the cowpea farming sector achieved higher yields and gross margins compared to non-users. Specifically, Ouedraogo et al. (2023) reported yield significantly increase in treated villages, demonstating CIS’s economic impact. These findings highlight the potential of CIS to enhance agricultural productivity and economic outcomes for farmers who effectively utilize these services. However, there are constraints and barriers to the widespread adoption of CIS. Language barriers, technical jargon, and reliance on technical language hinder the understanding and application of CIS by illiterate farmers. Researchers have shown that translating CIS into local languages enhances farmers’ ability to make informed decisions (Amwata et al., 2018; Khatibu et al., 2021; Osei et al., 2023). Amwata et al. (2018) discovered that eliminating language obstacles leads to a possible increase in yield ranging from 5 to 75%.

However, some studies have identified the use of the Participatory Integrated Climate Service Approach (PICSA) as an effective strategy for engaging farmers in improving CIS adoption and eliminating the limitations related to effective adoption. This approach enables farmers to develop strategic plans based on a better understanding of local climate conditions, leading to improved agricultural practices (Mwangi et al., 2020; Hansen et al., 2019). In 2016, the study took place in Mali and Senegal, utilizing the Participatory Integrated Climate Service Approach (PICSA) on a sample of 57 farmers in Mali and 47 farmers in Senegal. The study surveyed these farmers after the growing season ended to understand their perspectives on the approach’s implementation. According to Senegal and Mali, 97 and 76% of participants, respectively, deemed the strategy to be ‘very effective’. For instance, Mwangi et al. (2021) noted that Senegalies farmers adjusted planting dates using PICSA, boosting their resilience. Similary, the study by Ouedraogo et al. (2021) reported increased adoption among women using radio, highlighting gender-sensitive delivery. The technique enabled farmers to develop strategic plans far in advance of the season, using their improved knowledge of local climate conditions. Moreover, there is substantial evidence to substantiate the assertion that PICSA prompted farmers to consider and subsequently embrace many novel methodologies. These practices encompassed altering the timing of activities, like when to plant seeds, employing effective methods to manage soil and water, selecting appropriate crop varieties, regulating fertilizer usage, and modifying seasonal plans (like farm size) based on available resources. The study also demonstrated the potential of farmer-to-farmer extension to increase strategy adoption, which is particularly interesting considering the limited availability of extension services. The study demonstrated that CIS largely facilitates the improvement of decision-making at the farm level, hence contributing to the management of climate risks (Mwangi et al., 2021).

Despite its benefits, CIS faces several barriers to adoption in SSA. Socio-economic constraints, such as limited access to communication devices and low literacy levels, hinder farmers’ ability to understand and utilize CIS (Baffour-Ata et al., 2022). In Ghana, for instance, Baffour-Ata et al. (2022) found a few farmers with basic phones accessed CIS. Distrust in weather forecasts, often stemming from occasional inaccuracies, further reduces uptake. The lack of visual aids in forecast dissemination exacerbates this issue. For instance, the study by Sarku et al. (2024) in Southern Ghana reported that, Climate Information Services (CIS) are shared through various channels, but inequalities persist due to inappropriate digital technologies and biases delivery methods. This case study highlights global societal change in the farming sector and their local impacts, which challenge claims of societal justice.

Cultural and gender dynamics also play a crucial role in the acceptance and utilization of CIS. Study by Ngigi and Muange (2022) highlight that the creation and distribution of CIS often occur without recognizing the importance of gender sensitivity. In SSA, women play a significant role in agriculture, yet their access to climate information is frequently limited due to socio-cultural norms and roles that marginalize their participation. The study by Ngigi and Muange (2022) in Kenya reported that women’s CIS access was lower due to cultural restrictions on community meetings. Similarly, institutional barriers further complicate the dissemination and adoption of CIS. The study by Makuvaro et al. (2023) revealed that intermediary stakeholders, who are crucial in conveying CIS to farmers, often face challenges in understanding and interpreting the information themselves. It is noted that in South Africa a significant number of intermediaries struggled with technical forecasts, reducing effective communication. This issue is partly due to a lack of alignment between scientific information and indigenous knowledge, which farmers traditionally rely on. Consequently, there is a need for capacity building among these intermediaries to ensure they can effectively translate and communicate CIS to farmers. Moreover, the techniques used to disseminate CIS significantly impact its acceptance. In SSA, dissemination often relies on media channels that present technical information beyond the farmers’ ability to understand and effectively utilize in decision-making. For instance, Baffour-Ata et al. (2022) found that the technical nature of the information provided through media channels is often not user-friendly, contributing to low levels of uptake and utilization.

The research by Alidu et al. (2022), Vaughan et al. (2017), and Muema et al. (2018) also emphasizes the crucial role of education and trust. Vaughan et al. (2017) revealed that in Kenya forecast inaccuracies reduced trust with significant number of farmers citing unreliable predictions as a barrier. They argue that improving educational outreach and building trust in the accuracy and reliability of CIS are essential steps towards enhancing its adoption. Likewise, Alidu et al. (2022) in Ghana showed that literacy programmes significantly increased CIS trust among small-holders. According to the survey findings, a significant proportion of farmers, particularly small-scale farmers, have limited access to agro-weather information. Furthermore, a notable percentage of farmers lack the necessary skills and knowledge to efficiently utilize this information, leading to inadequate application of agro-weather data in their agricultural practices. Osei et al. (2023) however, reported that translating CIS into local languages increased adoption among illiterate farmers in Ghana while addressing a key barrier. Nevertheless, Makuvaro et al. (2023) also brought to light logistical challenges, including the intermittent unavailability or delayed supply of CIS. In their study Makuvaro et al. (2023) revealed that farmers reported outdated forecasts due to delays. These delays can render the information outdated and less useful for immediate decision-making. Additionally, the alignment of CIS with indigenous knowledge systems can facilitate better understanding and acceptance among farmers, bridging the gap between scientific and traditional agricultural practices.

The research highlights the challenges faced in incorporating Climate Information Services (CIS) into farm decision-making processes in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) due to climate-related hazards. However, there are potential solutions to address these challenges. One approach is to engage the private sector in the manufacturing and dissemination of CIS services, as demonstrated in a study conducted in Ghana (Alidu et al., 2022). Alidu et al. (2022) demonstrated a significant increase in CIS access in Ghana through mobile partnerships. To leverage this, policy-makers should establish public-private partnerships with mobile network operators to subsidize CIS delivery, including soil health data as argued by Reddy’s (2019) SHC model, moisture data from Tesfaye et al.’s (2021) Ethiopian approach, and market alerts from Mubiru et al.’s (2020) Ugandan tool, targeting rural areas where access remains low. This can improve CIS’s accessibility and utilization, particularly by partnering with mobile phone providers to reach a larger number of farmers. We also recognize co-production opportunities with users as a viable alternative. While some countries in the SSA have taken measures to engage farmers in the production and distribution of CIS, there is still a need to prioritize this approach (Nyadzi et al., 2021). In Senegal the study discovered that co-produced CIS increase adoption of CIS by 18% among local farmers. Additionally, integrating scientific CIS into conventional understanding is crucial. Farmers historically relied on their methods of predicting climate conditions, and incorporating scientific information can enhance their decision-making processes (Kumar et al., 2021; Antwi-Agyei et al., 2021). Farmer organizations and clubs can help facilitate information exchange and increase CIS utilization.

Capacity training for policymakers and the establishment of institutions are essential to effectively integrating climate services into decision-making processes (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2021). Given that only 15% of Burkina Faso policy-makers engaged in CIS training (Baffour-Ata et al., 2021), policies should mandate regular training programs, incorporating visualization training models (Reddy, 2019), field school approach (Zougmoré et al., 2018), and visual charts (Tesfaye et al., 2021) to address literacy gaps. Hansen et al. (2022) have identified several strategies to enhance the use of CIS, such as promoting digital innovation, finding a balance between the public and private sectors, and integrating CIS into agricultural extension services. For instance, Hansen et al. (2022) noted adoption rise in South Africa with digital tools. However, the impact of these strategies may vary depending on the specific circumstances of each country. The research emphasizes the importance of the timely and reliable availability of climate information services to support informed decision-making by farmers. It is also necessary to train and hire additional extension agents to collaborate with farmers in integrating CIS with crop and land management measures (Baffour-Ata et al., 2021). In Burkina Faso, Baffour-Ata et al. (2021) showed that trained agents increased CIS use among small-holders by 22%. To address gender disparities in CIS access and use, policies should allocate more of extension training funds to women farmers. As reported by Reddy’s (2019) visual aid approach, Mubiru et al.’s (2020) radio strategy, and Zougmoré et al.’s (2018) community engagement, these strategies are necessary in boosting comprehension adoption. This is also revealed in the study conducted in Tanzania whereby adoption increase via radio in Tanzania (Khatibu et al., 2021). To make CIS more useful and accessible, it is crucial to consider the specific needs and constraints of different communities, as standardized information services often fail to account for geographical and social diversity. There is a need to encourage collaborative efforts between scientists and users to enhance the utilization of climate information for climate change adaptation. Further research is needed to evaluate the impact of these strategies and enhance the effectiveness, scalability, and sustainability of CIS in SSA.

While this review synthesizes CIS effectiveness across Sub-Saharan African countries, the absence of studies from other African countries, despite their critical roles in agriculture (example Ethiopia extensive small-holder farming and Cote d’Ivoire global leadership in cocoa production; FAO, 2016), representing a geographical limitations. This gap likely stems from a lack of peer reviewed studies meeting our stringent inclusion criteria (example specific focus on CIS, farmer-level data) within the searched databases. Future research tagerting these countries is essential to broarden the understanding of CIS applications and enhance climate adaptation strategies across Sub-Saharan Africa.