According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Reduction (2023), floods are characterized by factors such as depth, volume of inundation, flow velocity, and associated magnitude. Similarly, the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) (2022) describes floods as occurring when water levels rise beyond the capacity of drainage systems, resulting in inundation. Urban flooding specifically affects densely populated built-up areas (Abeka et al., 2020; Onajomo, 2022). In Lagos State, Nigeria, urban flooding has become a recurring environmental challenge, exacerbated by climate uncertainty, rapid urbanization, inadequate drainage systems, and waste disposal problems (Adeola and Adetola, 2018; Adejobi, 2022; Ibeabuchi, 2023). As a result, the city's continuous expansion has heightened flood-related risks, posing threats to economic activities, human settlements, and public health (Gelleh et al., 2016; Gumbo, 2021; Lawanson et al., 2023). Most communities face flood impacts and uncertainties during the rainy seasons (Ahmad and Ma, 2020; Chinedu et al., 2024). The trend of urbanization has relied on unsustainable human activities that deplete the environment (Olukunga et al., 2024), leading to increased vulnerability to environmental problems (Wahab and Ojolowo, 2018; Ali, 2020; Aniramu et al., 2021; Biswas, 2023; Odunsi et al., 2024).

Population growth influences the rate and pattern of urbanization and impervious surfaces, resulting in the conversion of natural land cover into urban residences (Ogbonna and Umeh, 2023). During rainfall seasons, the surface runoff mechanism becomes compromised as extensive impervious surfaces inhibit water absorption into the underground water (Olatunde and Adejoh, 2017), leading to surface inundations (Ologunorisa and Eludoyin, 2022). This put pressure on the surface generation mechanism, overwhelming existing drainage systems, and altering natural water flow patterns (Ologunorisa et al., 2022). This challenge enhances urban flood vulnerability, particularly in urban areas where the topography is low and urban drains are inadequate (Orimoogunje et al., 2016; Abdel-Karim et al., 2020; Asumadu-Sarkodie et al., 2021). Poorly planned infrastructure can redirect water flows, causing previously dry areas to flood (Awe et al., 2020). As urban areas continue to grow, it is crucial to integrate flood resilience assessments into the urban planning and development process to avoid regular episodes of flood inundation by the urban populace (Osayomi et al., 2022). This proactive approach helps in understanding the potential for flooding and designing infrastructure that can withstand these risks.

Flood resilience strategies encompass physical infrastructure, scientific modeling, and community engagement to prevent, manage, and recover from flood events (Ijaware, 2020; Environment Agency, 2023). Flood intervention initiatives and compensation schemes provide post-disaster relief, promoting socio-economic recovery (Idowu and Zhou, 2019; Elum and Lawal, 2022). Integrating flood management into urban planning aligns with sustainable development goals, ensuring resilient, and sustainable cities (Adewumi et al., 2019; Masik and Grabkowska, 2020; Laidlaw and Percival, 2024). Ogbonna and Umeh (2023) addressed the shortcomings of urban flood resilience in arresting challenges of flood eventualities, while Magami et al. (2020) advocate for the repositioning of cities for modern adaptive capacity. The crucial interplay of resilience is linked to harmonizing efforts in addressing flood impacts and challenges of flood control measures (Nkwunonwo, 2016; Adegboyega et al., 2019; Almoradie et al., 2020; Septiningtiyas and Ananda, 2023), as the city progresses toward the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda. The focus is to offer a critical assessment of the existing flood reduction framework, generating more insights into transformative pathways that incorporate climate adaptation and urban growth rate across the general landscape of the Lagos Metropolis. Previous efforts to mitigate flood risks involving flood hazard mapping (Njoku et al., 2020), the effectiveness of structural resilience (Salami and Otokiti, 2022), and non-structural strategies (Yoade et al., 2023) can be evaluated for urban resilience building.

Although abundant studies have examined the occurrence, causes, socio-economic impacts, and fatalities of flooding in Lagos Metropolis (Gelleh et al., 2016; Wahab and Ojolowo, 2018; Adejobi, 2022; Olukunga et al., 2024), a noteworthy gap exists in the systematic evaluation of resilience strategies and their relevance to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). A significant part of the literature focuses on infrastructural deficits, informal settlements, and emergency response plans to salvage flood losses, often providing descriptive inventory rather than critically assessing the effectiveness of ongoing interventions, their importance and alignment with global sustainability goals (Okoye, 2019). Moreover, few studies have explored localizing flood resilience initiatives to specific SDG indicators, particularly, SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) and SDG 13 (Climate Action) which are integers of urban livelihood. There is a limited analytical framework in the literature that links resilience-building efforts, for instance early warning systems, drainage system efficiency, and urban planning reforms, to quantifiable results of the SDG framework.

Additionally, the role of federal and state governance, specific institutional mandates, and policy implementation on flood reductions remain underexplored in many resilience evaluations. Many developing states have policies that exist on paper and in public hearing, while the literature has failed to capture their inadequacies, inefficiencies and how robust the resilience strategies have been effectively executed, monitored, and scaled across diverse socio-economic dimensions in the flood zones within Lagos Metropolis. In furtherance, there is a dearth of comparative analyses that benchmark the trajectory of flood resilience in Lagos against other megacities facing similar climate vulnerabilities regionally and globally (Iyeshim, 2023). Most of the studies often neglect the agitations of vulnerable communities and how nature-based solutions can be profound. It is also important to examine the role of grassroots adaptation and public-private partnerships in enhancing resilience, in view to provide holistic understanding necessary for developing inclusive and transformative pathways toward the 2030 Agenda.

The present study aims to analyze literature and other published materials on flood issues, focusing on the historical flood impacts in Lagos state over the past decade. The goal is to examine spatial flood incidents reported in media and literature (see Figure 1), identify successes, and pitfalls of resilience structures in addressing recurrent urban flood disasters, and highlight the need for more interventions in highly vulnerable floodplains of Lagos Metropolis. The review will integrate the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) policy framework, identifying steps to improve flood resilience strategies in alignment with the SDGs of the 2030 agenda for sustainable cities and development. The review aims to achieve the following objectives: (a) assess urban flood dynamics and its impacts on vulnerable communities in Lagos State; (b) evaluate the effectiveness of existing flood resilience strategies in Lagos Metropolis, including both structural and non-structural measures; and (c) explore the challenges of resilience strategies and propose pathways for improving flood resilience strategies in Lagos in accordance with global best practices and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Despite numerous flood management frameworks, the severity of flood events has continued to rise, resulting in significant loss of lives and properties, disruption to economic activities, and negative effects urban infrastructures. The call for a critical assessment of existing flood resilience strategies is timely, especially as we approach the 2030 mandate for the long-term sustainable development objectives. The SDGs emphasize the importance of resilient urban infrastructures, enhancing adaptive capacity, and disaster reduction efforts. The increasing focus on climate vulnerabilities has prompted scholarly attention to systematically evaluate of current flood resilience efforts in Lagos Metropolis, in line with these global targets.

Lagos State, is located in the southwestern part of Nigeria on the narrow coastal floodplain of the Bight of Benin, occupying approximately between longitudes 2° 42′ to 3° 42′ E and latitudes 6° 22′ to 6° 52′ N. The population of Lagos State has grown significantly over the years, from around 305,000 in 1950 to 5.3 million in 1991, and 9.1 million in 2006 (Federal Republic of Nigeria Population Census Commission, 2006). The projected population of Lagos is expected to reach 25 million people by 2025 (Lagos Bureau Government, 2022).

Lagos Metropolis boasts a complex drainage system comprising rivers, lagoons, creeks, and the ocean, covering approximately 22% (787 km²) of the state's total landmass. Population densities in Lagos Metropolis vary, ranging from about 4,907 persons/km² in sparsely populated areas to 20,000 persons/km² in densely populated areas (Adeaga et al., 2020). The central corridor of the state, where a significant portion of the population resides, faces challenges from flooding due to poor drainage systems, rapid urbanization, and an increasing rate of slum developments (Raufu et al., 2023).

The Nigeria Hydrological Services Agency (NIHSA) has classified major part of Lagos State, including Agege, Alimosho, Ikorodu, Lagos Island, Ikeja, and Eti-Osa, as High-Risk Areas for flooding in 2025. Other Local Government Areas (LGAs) were classified as moderate flood risk. The agency reported an increase in rainfall frequency and intensity, particularly in the southern region of the country, indicating a heightened risk of flooding.

This review examines existing literature to assess the impact of recurrent flood events on vulnerable communities in Lagos State and the resilience structures in place. The focus of the reviews is particularly suited for examining diverse topics with their study designs, policy documents, and gray literature, systematically drawing evidence, identifying gaps, and informing future research. Additionally, identifying the current gaps in resilience strategies and exploring solutions to tackle future challenges leading up to the 2030 agenda is key to the study. The systematic review justified the broad complexity of heterogeneous studies ranging from peer-reviewed studies, government reports, and policy briefs, capturing the exploratory nature of urban flood resilience and synthesizing evidence. The study also conceptualized flood impacts and resilience in Lagos Metropolis, and where these efforts translate to achieving SDGs. The study adhered to recommended scientific principles outlined by Masik and Grabkowska (2020), Laidlaw and Percival (2024), Ndimele et al. (2024), and was guided by the PICO framework (Population, Intervention, Control, Outcomes) to formulate the research questions stated in the introduction section. The use of the PICO method in flood resilience study justified the negative menace associated with flooding, its effect on the vulnerable population, while outcomes of intervention are critical to synthesizing solutions. Therefore, the study adopted the PICO framework for structuring and scoping research questions into highlighted PICO elements, addressing each section of the questions appropriately and the specific area of interest.

The study utilized and followed the Systematic Review Process (Liberati et al., 2009) as stated by PRISMA guidelines for reviews and meta-analysis reporting. A structured approach was employed for study selection, literature search strategy, and data extraction to ensure transparent reports. Multiple online databases, including Google Scholar, SCOPUS, and Agency Data Repositories were searched using specific terms related to urban flooding in Lagos State, Nigeria. Key search terminologies include: “Flooding in Nigeria,” “Urban Flood Causes in Lagos State,” “Impacts of Flooding,” “Flooding and Sustainable Livelihoods in Nigeria,” “Social and Economic Implications of Flood,” “Flood Resilience Strategies in Southwestern Nigeria,” “Flood Disaster Reduction Framework,” “Social Vulnerability and Adaptations to Flooding,” “Resilience of Lagos Flooding,” “Structural and Non-structural resilience,” and “Challenges of Flood Adaptations in Lagos, Nigeria.” The search spanned a 10-year time-frame, from January 1, 2013 to December 31, 2023, resulting in a dataset of 87 studies.

The PICO criteria guided the study's objectives and the selection of studies for review. Two independent authors screened search results, extracted data from the selected studies, and assessed the quality of the studies based on various criteria. The study utilized a set of PRISMA guidelines for reporting systematic reviews, providing synthetic meaning to findings from examined broad studies. Evidence has proven the usability, accuracy, and appropriateness of the PRISMA method (McClymont et al., 2019). Hence, the study followed specific steps including screening and selection, full-text articles, and a critical appraisal was conducted to evaluate the strengths, limitations, and potential biases of the studies (see PRISMA 2020 Checklist in the Supplementary materials). The systematic review was conducted to find syntheses in the studies, focusing on the individual study aim, methods, their findings, implications of the study, and recommendations. Essentially, findings were presented to report urban flooding impacts, current resilience strategies, and challenges of flood resilience in achieving SDGs as stated in the research objectives. The selection process is illustrated in Figure 3.

Lagos State's geographical features, characterized by lowland terrain and high river basin collection, make it prone to surface inundation (Chinedu et al., 2024). Floods in Lagos have had severe consequences, affecting millions of people and causing substantial economic losses (Adeaga et al., 2020; Odunsi et al., 2024). Recent flood events in 2019 resulted in significant human and economic tolls, with hundreds of thousands affected and numerous fatalities recorded (Ologunorisa and Eludoyin, 2022; Oladipo, 2023). The indirect impacts on public infrastructure further exacerbated the economic burden, with losses extending to property, farmland, buildings and ecological systems (National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), 2022; Lagos State Ministry of Economic Planning Budget, 2023).

The combination of Lagos' geographical attributes, population density, and coastal influences contributes to the frequency of flooding (Adegboyega et al., 2019; Lagos State Government, 2022). Despite challenges in accurate data collection, it is evident that flood management capacities in Lagos are inadequate (Lawanson et al., 2023). The inadequacy in accurate data hampers efforts to model flood impacts effectively, leading to sub-optimal early warning systems and quick response (Isiaka et al., 2023). Certain areas within Lagos, such as Ajeromi-Ifelodun, Surulere, and Mushin, face heightened flood risks due to population density and poor urban infrastructure (Obiefuna et al., 2021; Osayomi et al., 2022; Isiaka et al., 2023). Efforts to mitigate flood hazards have been initiated, but they fall short of addressing the scale of the problems, necessitating a comprehensive approach to sustainable urban flood control.

Figures 4a, b show the flood hazard and settlement density mapping, revealing the Lagos State Flood Data inventory from 2013 to 2023. These highlight the historical flood occurrences, areas affected, and informal vulnerable settlements that are grossly affected. Recent flood events have led to the classification of Lagos Metropolis into three floodable zones:

Lagos faces frequent and severe flood hazards, primarily due to a combination of natural factors and human-induced contributors including unregulated rapid urbanization, inadequate waste disposal systems, clogged drains, poor infrastructural development, and preparedness. These issues characterize flooding in Nigeria and other developing countries (Adetunji and Oyeleye, 2020; Iyeshim, 2023). Meanwhile, developed countries like the Netherlands and Germany also face flood hazards, but the nature of their response differs significantly (Okoye, 2019). The utilization of advanced forecasting and early warning systems, engineered flood protection, and flood intervention schemes are part of the resilience available for affected communities. Unlike before, even in Western nations, climate change has increased flash flood events, overwhelming existing systems, yet fatalities are well managed (Adelekan and Asiyanbi, 2016). This advancement mirrors the struggles of developing nations and their systemic vulnerabilities, such as infrastructure gaps, governance issues, and socio-economic constraints. However climate change is challenging existing resilience strategies globally, creating new modalities to ameliorate recent flooding intensity.

Unfortunately, Nigeria like other developing countries can upgrade its approach toward flood resilience. The institutional framework for disaster management in Nigeria emphasizes coordinated efforts at the federal, state, and grassroots levels, even though wide gaps exist in their functionality. Implementing flood resilience initiatives, public awareness, improved mitigation measures, and research-based flood solutions are crucial for building a more resilient urban environment. Comprehensive resilience strategies are essential to address the current flood challenges and prepare for a more resilient future.

The recurring floods in numerous cities and towns across Nigeria have become a pressing concern for citizens, government officials, and scientists' alike (Abimbola et al., 2020). Reports by Orimoogunje et al. (2016), Obiefuna et al. (2021), and Isiaka et al. (2023) highlight devastating flood events in cities such as Lagos, Osogbo, Yobe, and Akure, occurring in multiple years and inflicting significant damage. Coastal communities along the Atlantic Ocean, including Lagos, Ondo, Port-Harcourt, Calabar, Uyo, and Warri, have consistently faced annual floods over the past two decades (Elum and Lawal, 2022; Odunsi et al., 2024). Catastrophic floods in cities along the Niger basin have resulted in the displacement of residents and damage to properties (Ologunorisa et al., 2022). In addition to urban areas, rural communities and agricultural lands have also been adversely affected by flooding (Ijaware, 2020; Aniramu et al., 2021). Rainwater inundation has led to the destruction of agricultural crops, disrupting food production and livelihoods (Kastridis et al., 2020; Echendu and Georgeou, 2021; Lawanson et al., 2023).

Furthermore, excess water release from dams like the Ogun-Oshun River Basin Development Agency has inundated communities in Ketu, Isheri, Kara, and Agiliti areas, exacerbating the flood situation in 2023 (Ogbonna and Umeh, 2023). The consequences of floods extend beyond physical damage, encompassing economic losses, environmental pollution, and public health risks (Dike et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2020). Flood-related fatalities and economic hardships have been widespread, particularly in areas where floodwaters contaminate underground water reservoirs and wells, rendering them unfit for domestic use (Ologunorisa and Eludoyin, 2022). Catastrophic events such as dam failures have resulted in significant loss of life and property, as seen in the Kano flood of 2008 (Gumbo, 2021).

In Lagos State, diverse locations have also experienced their share of devastating floods, with places like Eti-Osa, Agege, Ajeromi/Ifelodun, Ikoyi, Shomolu, and Lekki facing repeated inundation events over the years (Ndimele et al., 2024). These floods have led to extensive displacement of residents, loss of homes, and destruction of infrastructure, amounting to substantial economic losses (Elum and Lawal, 2022). The impact on agriculture is particularly severe, with informal settlements in areas like Surulere, Amuwo-Odofin, and Amukoko losing multiple commercial properties to flooding, posing a threat to the economic stability and income of the victims (Olorunfemi et al., 2020).

As shown in Figure 5, the most catastrophic flood event occurred in 2022–2023 with $262,500 in damages and 8,000 affected residents recorded in Lagos State (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, 2023). The primary driver of urban floods is the rainfall trend between June to October, emerging as the high-risk period for flood fatalities (Buba et al., 2021). This available data persists in presenting economic impact assessments and geographical extent documentation of flood events in Lagos State (Echendu, 2021), highlighting the multiple causal patterns evident in the seasonal rainfall variation, river overflows, coastal storms, and dam management issues (Eilander et al., 2020; Faccini et al., 2021; Kasim et al., 2022). The monetary value loss is so enormous, not to be calculated with the present situation of inflation rates across the 23-year period (Ibeabuchi, 2023). In light of these complexities and socio-economic losses, there is a pressing need to explore flood resilience strategies for the strategic development of urban centers across Nigeria. Effective flood management strategies are tailored to the specific needs of urban delta environments (Arshad et al., 2021; Eilander et al., 2020), by addressing the multifaceted challenges posed by floods. This requires comprehensive planning, infrastructure development, and community engagement to build resilience and mitigate future risks (Asiedu, 2020; Fang et al., 2021).

Floods have significant impacts on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in various ways. The SDGs are a set of goals aimed at addressing social, economic, and environmental challenges facing the world today with the goal of improving the lives of people, society, and the environment by 2030. However, floods pose a significant challenge to achieving some of these goals as the impacts of flooding are devastating to infrastructure, economies, and the wellbeing of individuals, ultimately hindering progress toward the SDGs.

The direct impact of floods on No Poverty and Zero Hunger (Goals 1 and 2 of the SDGs) is massive. Floods trigger all forms of poverty and hunger, destroying homes, businesses, and lowering livelihood standards, pushing people further into poverty (Olanrewaju et al., 2019; Echendu and Georgeou, 2021). The cost of preventing and rebuilding human capital infrastructure after a flood event is exorbitant, leaving many communities struggling to recover from financial losses. For example, Nigeria's 2012 floods affected 16 million people, many of whom lost homes and suffered significant income loss (Ndimele et al., 2024). This undermines efforts to reduce poverty and improve the livelihoods of those living in affected areas. Furthermore, flooding can also affect progress toward zero hunger by destroying crops and livestock, leading to food shortages and price spikes that make it difficult for vulnerable populations to access food, resulting in malnutrition and food insecurity (Lawal and Iwajomo, 2020).

In addition, flooding can have a significant impact on the health of people and the environment (SDG 3), which aims to ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all ages (United Nations Environment Program, 2022). Floods can affect vulnerable populations in urban environments by contributing to disease outbreaks through the erosion of contaminants and pollutants into community water resources (Tramblay et al., 2020). This can overwhelm healthcare systems and pose other health risks, hindering efforts to improve public health systems and impeding progress toward this goal.

The Lagos environment faces challenges in achieving Clean Water and Sanitation (SDG 6) due to urban population practices and water scarcity (Echendu, 2022). Rivers and streams are often polluted with improper waste disposal, and floods further contaminate water resources (Elum and Lawal, 2022). Floodwaters can contaminate drinking water sources, disrupt sanitation systems, and damage water infrastructure, making it challenging to provide safe and reliable water and sanitation services to communities in need, perpetuating poverty and disease cycles.

Achieving sustainable cities (SDG 11) is under threat from flooding, as floods can cause significant damage to urban infrastructure, homes, and public services, making cities more vulnerable to future disasters. Additionally, Wizor and Mpigi (2020) opined that flooding disrupts economic activities, leading to job losses and hindering efforts to create sustainable and inclusive economies, impacting the livelihoods and wellbeing of individuals living in affected areas.

Flooding is also a result of climate variability, impacting the Climate Change Framework of SDG 13, which focuses on combating climate change and its impacts (United Nations Convention to Combat Climate Change, 2022). Climate scenarios in Lagos state, such as heatwaves, flooding, and soil erosion, are exacerbated by climate extremes and rising global temperatures, leading to coastal and wetland degradation and more frequent severe weather events (Idowu and Zhou, 2019; Idowu et al., 2022). This has contributed to increased flooding and natural disasters in the area, destabilizing communities and ecosystems and impeding progress toward this important SDG.

Flood impacts on the environment are consequential to SDG 15, which focuses on conserving marine resources and biodiversity (Umar and Gray, 2022). When floods occur, they can carry pollutants and debris into waterways, harming marine ecosystems and threatening aquatic species' health, ultimately impeding efforts to achieve this goal. Flooding can also impact Goal 15, which focuses on protecting terrestrial ecosystems, forests, and biodiversity (Olorunfemi et al., 2020). Flooding can destroy habitats, displace wildlife, and degrade ecosystems, leading to loss of biodiversity and ecological balance, hindering progress toward this goal (Okafor, 2020).

In conclusion, the impacts of flooding on achieving the SDGs are significant and multifaceted (see Figure 6). Unfortunately, current practices has failed to fully achieve the set-out goals, but there is room for improvement. Unsustainable flood resilience strategies can hinder the progress toward multiple SDGs, by undermining efforts to reduce poverty, end hunger, promote health and wellbeing, ensure water and sanitation access, foster economic growth, build resilient cities, combat climate change, and protect biodiversity. Addressing the challenges posed by flooding is essential to achieving the SDGs by 2030.

Flood resilience in Lagos State, Nigeria, is a critical issue due to the city's vulnerability caused by various environmental factors and rapid urbanization. Studies by Rezende et al. (2019), Zhao et al. (2020), Nwagbara and Okwuonu (2021), and Yoade et al. (2023) have emphasized several efforts being made by agencies to improve flood resilience through a combination of structural and non-structural measures. This study explores the current flood resilience practices in Lagos State, focusing on the key strategies being implemented to address this persistent issue.

Lagos's flood resilience strategies and the SDGs indicators require a multifaceted approach, including investing in modern infrastructure, enhancing community engagement, enforcing environmental regulations, improving data collection and monitoring, securing diversified funding sources, fostering institutional collaboration, and addressing socioeconomic inequalities. However, the recurrence of floods in Lagos has shown some meaningful progress since the beginning of the millennium, aligning with the key goal of developing a sustainable and resilient urban city in line with the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda.

In 1999, the Federal Government and the National Emergency Relief Agency (now NEMA), established Emergency Management Agencies at the national, state and local levels (NEMA, SEMA, and LEMA). NEMA then developed the National Disaster Management Framework (NDMF) in 2010, with the primary function of addressing flood and other disaster challenges. These efforts have led to the construction and rebuilding of disaster management infrastructures, providing accessible facilities for urban convenience. As a result, there has been a reasonable reduction in the number of death or people affected by disasters, including water-related drowning in major coastal areas of the Lagos State, Nigeria. The construction of groins and other embankments around the Lagos Lagoon has provided protection for coastal residents and tourism visitors.

The Lagos State Government undertook several structural initiatives in recent time, including building 69 km of concrete secondary stormwater drainage to manage coastal flooding, constructing the “Great Wall of Lagos,” multiple shoreline protection projects in Eti-Osa area, draining 100,000 hectares of land, dredging and maintaining 32 stream/rivers, delivering five channelization projects, citywide de-flooding and de-silting of drainage systems, and maintaining the existing drainage network. As part of the sustainability plan, the Ministry of the Environment increased the number of engineers and staff in the office of drainage services from five to 57, with structural engineers deployed to oversee the condition of drainage channels at the local level.

Similarly, the Lagos Government improved flood risk information and GIS-based analysis with the support of Space Monitoring and Meteorological Institutions for flood management, resulting in a drastic reduction in coastal flood severity, knowledge mapping, and enhanced emergency team efficiency toward disaster reduction.

Between 2019 and 2023, the Lagos State Government (LASG) halted physical development in major wetland and areas prone to flooding. The Lagos State Resilience Office (LASRO) was launched as a partnership between the State Government and the Rockefeller Foundation through the 100 Resilient Cities (100RC) program. Additionally, the Federal Government and LASG initiated dredging projects along the Ogun River downstream, from Ikorodu to Isheri, which began in September 2024, and is expected to last 6–8 months. The trajectory of flood management is aimed at minimizing flood impacts, Figure 7 presents some of the resilience effort in Lagos State, Nigeria.

However, the study identified social disparities in flood resilience efforts, particularly the impact severity on low-income communities where urban disaster management is insufficient, exposing more informal settlements to high-risk flooding. These communities have limited access to resources and support systems, making them more vulnerable to flood-related disasters. Addressing these socioeconomic disparities is crucial for achieving inclusive and equitable urban resilience. Environmental regulations in major residential area are often weakly enforced in Lagos, leading to illegal constructions and the blockage of drainage channels by waste, increasing flood risks. Many communities lack awareness of flood warnings, proper waste disposal compliance, and preparedness measures, resulting in inadequate responses during flood events (Akinloye, 2018). This weak enforcement undermines efforts to create a sustainable and resilient urban environment. The inadequacy of climate adaptation and social knowledge integration remain a significant pitfall for urban policy-makers. Numerous studies worldwide have examined the efficiency of functional and sustainable resilience, emphasizing the use of technological water level sensors for flood monitoring, predictions, and timely information dissemination (Shi et al., 2020; Van-Berchum et al., 2020; Johnson et al., 2022). While many of these studies focus on recommendations for better flood measures in developed countries (Gregory and Gerald, 2020), major part of West Africa states are lagging behind.

In addition, there is a gap between policy formulation and execution, with many initiatives suffering poor funding, technical know-how, and appropriate institutional supports (Mansour et al., 2022). The unsupportive role of certain agencies and their conflicting line of duties pose another challenge, limiting the synergy expected from disaster resilience institutions in Nigeria (Echendu, 2020). This disconnect hampers the city's ability to build resilience against climate-induced flooding, a challenge that needs to be addressed in the future.

The flooding crisis in Lagos is a result of interconnected natural and anthropogenic factors. Urban expansion has encroached into drainage systems and canals, hindering the smooth flow of floodwater away from vulnerable areas (Lawanson et al., 2023). Wetlands, waterlogging, and low-lying areas face diverse challenges. The current situation is unable to minimize the impact of heavy rainfall on residents and protect vital infrastructure such as roads and buildings. Climate change impacts are on the rise (Ansah et al., 2020), with sea levels rising by 3.7 mm annually (Nigeria Meteorological Agency, 2021), further heightening the vulnerability of coastal environments to flood risks (Kasim et al., 2022). The recent intensity in rainfall events due to climate change overwhelms drainage systems, rendering the flood warning system ineffective.

The urban planning framework has failed the city, with issues such as the lack of implementation of the Urban Planning Act, personnel negligence, and weak municipal authority. Despite 40% of Lagos' land area consisting of water bodies and wetlands, uncontrolled development persists in these vulnerable zones. Poor waste management clogs drainage channels (Osayomi et al., 2022), with 70% of flooding attributed to blocked drainage system (Lagos State Government, 2022). Social stratification in Lagos is evident, with most developmental projects focusing on elite areas like Eko Atlantic City (Ogbonna and Umeh, 2023), displacing average or poor residents to flood-prone communities (Lawal and Iwajomo, 2020). This social marginalization has led to a significant portion of Lagos being underdeveloped, reserved exclusively for low-income and mid-income residents (Rahman et al., 2021).

There are several challenges in the flood resilience efforts in Lagos State that need to be addressed. Rapid urbanization and informal settlements have encroached on floodplains and natural waterways, increasing the vulnerability of these areas to flooding (Ullah et al., 2021). The government must develop and enforce land use policies to regulate development in flood-prone areas and prevent further encroachment on natural drainage systems (Ndimele et al., 2024). Policy makers and urban development regulators must be professional and non-partisan in their activities to avoid fragmented institutional responsibilities in flood management, emphasizing proactive approaches to disaster risk reduction (Onajomo, 2022). Resilience in Lagos State remains a continuous effort, advancing partnership and resilient programs, and delivering the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

As we approach the year 2030, it is imperative that we begin to strategize and plan for future challenges to ensure climate impact resilience. The current challenges of climate change, rapid urbanization, and social inequality call for a more transformative pathway toward a resilient future, accelerating the progress on the SDGs while reducing flood risks. Lagos municipal authority and other stakeholders should prioritize: