The Middle East, a region known for its historical richness, cultural diversity, and economic significance, is also grappling with a pressing concern that affects the lives of millions of its inhabitants - poor air quality. As the region undergoes rapid urbanization, industrialization, and population growth, the importance of air quality monitoring in the Middle East has never been more evident. The Middle East is the conjunction of expanding urbanization, industrialization and agriculture along with inherited desertification. This provides a homegrown persistent source of air pollution affecting quality of life of residence by aggravating the health issues pertaining to respiratory functions irrespective of gender and age. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Ozone (O3) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) pose serious health risks, particularly in densely populated urban areas (Dockery and Pope, 1994).

Vulnerable groups, such as children, the elderly, and individuals with preexisting health conditions, are at higher risk. Air pollution exacerbates respiratory ailments, leading to increased hospitalizations and premature deaths, burdening healthcare systems and affecting the overall wellbeing of communities (Kampa and Castanas, 2008). Beyond human health, air pollution takes a toll on the region’s unique ecosystems. It harms vegetation, disrupts fragile desert ecosystems, and affects biodiversity. Dust storms, a recurring phenomenon in the Middle East, carry pollutants that can travel vast distances, impacting regions far from their source (Awadh, 2023). Air pollutants like black carbon contribute to climate change by accelerating the melting of snow and ice in surrounding regions. As the region faces increasing temperatures and shifting climate patterns, air quality monitoring becomes essential for understanding and mitigating these changes (Lelieveld et al., 2015). Some common gaseous pollutants and PM alongwith their sources have been given in Table 1.

Monitoring air quality in the Middle East is not merely a response to a pressing problem; it is a beacon of hope for the region’s future. The deployment of advanced air quality monitoring networks, often integrated with Internet of Things (IoT) technology, offers several advantages (Alghamdi et al., 2015).

IoT-based sensor networks provide real-time data on air quality, enabling authorities to respond swiftly to pollution events and protect public health. Reliable air quality data informs policy and regulatory decisions, supporting efforts to reduce emissions and improve air quality standards. Accessible air quality information empowers citizens to make informed choices about outdoor activities, reducing personal exposure to pollution. Data collected from monitoring networks drive research on air quality and its effects, fostering innovation in pollution control technologies and sustainable urban planning.

The Middle East faces significant air quality challenges driven by rapid urbanization, industrialization, and natural factors. Air quality issues are exacerbated by unique regional characteristics, including arid climates and increasing dust storms, which introduce additional pollutants into the atmosphere (Goudie, 2014). Dust and fine particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) are major pollutants in the Middle East. Sources include natural dust storms, construction activities, and industrial emissions (Nisbet et al., 2019). Traffic emissions, industrial processes, and energy production contribute to elevated NO2 levels in urban areas (Duncan et al., 2016). SO2 emissions arise from industrial activities, including oil refining and power generation (Roy and Sardar, 2015). VOCs are released from transportation, petrochemical industries, and natural sources. They contribute to ozone formation and smog (Siddiqua et al., 2022). Ozone is a secondary pollutant formed through photochemical reactions involving VOCs, NOx, and sunlight.

IoT-based sensor networks offer crucial advantages in addressing air quality challenges in the Middle East. IoT sensors provide real-time data, enabling timely responses to pollution events, especially dust storms (Zheng et al., 2018). Distributed sensor networks offer comprehensive spatial coverage, essential for understanding pollution patterns across cities and regions (Saini et al., 2021). IoT sensors assist in identifying pollution sources, facilitating targeted mitigation efforts. Accessible air quality information empowers citizens to protect their health and advocate for pollution control measures. Reliable IoT-based data informs evidence-based policies and regulatory decisions, critical for improving air quality standards (Saini et al., 2021)

An air quality monitoring system can be considered comprehensive if it hosts a variety of sensors to monitor the air as well as weather. There is a large list of available options, but few are considered very much indispensable.

Gas sensors detect specific pollutants (e.g., NO2, CO, VOCs) through chemical reactions that change electrical conductivity, resistivity, or optical properties (Zheng et al., 2018). Gas sensors offer high precision and accuracy for targeted gases but may require calibration to maintain accuracy over time. However, regular maintenance and calibration is inevitable for quality assurance (Karagulian et al., 2019). Ozone (O3) is measured through fluctuations in electrical signals due to reactions triggered electrochemically (Gao et al., 2012). Like other sensors, this also demands frequent calibration and maintenance for ensuring quality of data. Temperature and Humidity sensors use thermistors and capacitors to convert changes in electrical flow into temperature and humidity values (Zheng et al., 2018).

Particulate Matter (PM) sensors measure the concentration of airborne particles by capturing and counting particles using light scattering or light blocking techniques (Gao et al., 2015). PM sensors exhibit good accuracy for larger particles (PM10) but may have reduced accuracy for fine particles (PM2.5) due to variability in particle composition (Kelly et al., 2017). Regular maintenance, including cleaning of sensor components and calibration, is necessary to ensure accuracy.

A large number of companies are designing and manufacturing sensors for Air quality monitoring using different materials. These sensors are categorized based on their performance, cost effectiveness as well as working conditions. A smart IAQ monitoring network works with on-the-go data transfer from sensors to server on cloud for subsequent IAQ processing and evaluation (Husain et al., 2007; Arar and Jung, 2022; Asghar et al., 2024). IoT based network also comprises of end equipment and communication exchange facilities. These components exchange information autonomously providing users with intellect, intense, and rapid response. A Schematic model of IoT based air quality network consists of user, cloud, internet, mobile network, sensors and data logger or hub/gateway (Figure 3). Although it is financially expensive to use cloud-based services, it can be the backbone for an efficient network dealing with big data analysis at operational level. This also can ensure security of the data with high level of possible encryption because end user interact with the network via variety of the devices such as smartphones, tablets, or laptops. These communication channels can be divided into three tiers of perception, network, and application (Figure 4). Perception tier is the core of the system consisting of air quality and weather sensors, and devices to record the information and send it into network (Gharaibeh et al., 2017). Network tier may consist of any communication protocol or network such cellular, LAN, WAN or wireless to efficiently disseminate the information retrieved from perception tier to user through application tier connecting various applications (Sai et al., 2019; Bousiotis et al., 2021; Buelvas et al., 2023).

Geopolitical and socioeconomic importance of Middle East merits the sustainable existence of IoT based air quality monitoring networks in the region to work synergistically for equally good air quality of the region. Regionally integrated air quality monitoring networks will serve several stakeholders related to departments ranging from educational, research, policy, health, environment, tourism and many more. There are already a few successful examples of such IoT based air quality networks in the Middle East (Table 4). These networks play a vital role in assessing and managing air quality in the Middle East, helping to protect public health and the environment while informing policy decisions and regulatory actions.

Countries in the initial stages of implementing air quality networks at regional level must understand the responsibility and roles of the important stakeholders such as Government Agencies, Research Institutions, Environmental Organizations and public. Government agencies are often responsible for establishing and maintaining monitoring infrastructure, setting air quality standards, and regulating emissions. Research institutions contribute to data collection, analysis, and research on air quality, helping to improve monitoring techniques and policy recommendations (Hassan et al., 2020). Environmental organizations advocate for air quality improvements, raise public awareness, and sometimes operate independent monitoring stations (Sarigiannis et al., 2011). The role of the public is of the utmost importance to reach a sustainable clean environment reflected from their actions and awareness. Despite the importance of collaboration, several challenges hinder effective data sharing and cooperation in the Middle East which is linked to the unawareness or lack of understanding of the roles of stakeholders which usually leads to the limited accessibility to air quality data due to proprietary ownership, lack of standardized formats, and data restrictions by some stakeholders (Buelvas et al., 2023; Srishti et al., 2023). Data recorded by diverse sources often faces issues of interoperability when it converges in a network. Variability in data formats, measurement units, and quality control procedures among different monitoring stations hampers data integration and analysis (Din et al., 2019; Hassan et al., 2020). There is a lack of regulatory harmonization among the Middle Eastern countries due to several reasons. For instance, disparities in air quality regulations among Middle Eastern countries hinder regional cooperation and consistency in addressing cross-border pollution (Sarigiannis et al., 2011; Sarigiannis et al., 2017). Further, limited resources and funding for monitoring infrastructure and research impede the expansion and maintenance of monitoring networks.

The Middle East can consider Dubai Air Quality Monitoring Network (DAQMN) as an example to follow for establishing an air quality network embedded with IoT. DAQMN can be looked up as an air quality network covering various types of possible air pollution sources from urban, rural, industrial and natural. DAQMN is promoted as transparent source of information to both public and policymakers through real time dissemination of information through web and mobile platforms (Environment, 2024).

IoT-based systems have brought significant advancements to air quality monitoring in the Middle East, leading to a deeper understanding of pollution trends, notable improvements, and positive changes in public awareness and policies. IoT-based systems provide real-time and precise data on air quality, allowing for the identification of pollution hotspots and the sources of contaminants (Him et al., 2019; Sai et al., 2019; Bousiotis et al., 2021; Saini et al., 2021; Buelvas et al., 2023; Asghar et al., 2024). Continuous monitoring has revealed seasonal and diurnal pollution patterns, aiding in the development of targeted mitigation strategies (Chen et al., 2015; Ammar et al., 2018; Din et al., 2019; Hassan et al., 2020; Saini et al., 2021; Saini et al., 2021; Buelvas et al., 2023). The data-driven approach has enabled governments to measure the effectiveness of pollution control measures and adapt policies accordingly.

Accessible air quality information through IoT platforms has empowered the Middle Eastern public to make informed decisions about outdoor activities and reduce personal exposure to pollution. Public pressure, driven by increased awareness, has catalyzed policy changes, leading to stricter emissions regulations, increased green initiatives, and support for cleaner transportation options (Zanella et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2015; Ammar et al., 2018; Čolaković and Hadžialić, 2018; Hassan et al., 2020; Saini et al., 2021; Kausar et al., 2023). IoT-based data has become integral to policy development, enabling evidence-based decision-making and fostering international cooperation in addressing air quality challenges (Sarigiannis et al., 2011; Sarigiannis et al., 2017).

Implementing IoT-based systems for air quality monitoring in the Middle East faces several challenges such as infrastructure constraints, data privacy and security, and interoperability. Limited infrastructure in some areas may hinder the deployment of monitoring networks, particularly in remote or underdeveloped regions (Abomhara and Køien, 2014). Ensuring data privacy and security is crucial, given concerns related to data breaches and misuse of sensitive information (Miorandi et al., 2012). The lack of standardized protocols and data formats can hinder interoperability between different monitoring systems and devices (Al-Fuqaha et al., 2015). However, to overcome these challenges governments must invest in infrastructure development, including the expansion of wireless networks and power supply. This can facilitate the deployment of IoT-based systems in remote areas (Bales et al., 2014). To make this network sustainable, robust data encryption and access control mechanisms should be in place to protect sensitive information, addressing data privacy and security concerns (Zheng et al., 2018). Most importantly, a Regional Spatial Data Infrastructure (RSDI) or other data sharing protocols are necessary to capitalize the use of collected data from IoT network (Miorandi et al., 2012).

Use and development of low-cost air quality monitoring sensors should be encouraged at policy level to achieve high spatial and temporal coverage (Margaritis et al., 2021; Bousiotis et al., 2023; Buelvas et al., 2023; Nobell et al., 2023). Similarly, the use of artificial intelligence-based algorithms should be encouraged to process the collected data. This will enable real time availability of accurate reliable data for enhancing the scientific understanding of air pollution trends and sources for effective policy making (Chen et al., 2014).

An integrated air quality monitoring network based on Nanomaterial based sensors is an indispensable element for research, teaching, awareness and policy making to produce knowledgeable decisions in the vast interest of public of Middle East. Air quality in the Middle East is strongly impacted by dust. The following recommendations has been made based on this study.

➢ Integrated IoT-based sensor network systems with conventional air quality monitoring network will increase geospatial data coverage that will leads to better air quality management.

By prioritizing these recommendations, the Middle East can further leverage IoT-based systems to improve air quality monitoring, safeguard public health, protect the environment, and contribute to sustainable development in the region.