The transformation of post-industrial landscapes has increasingly been framed through the lens of ecological urbanism and user-centred design. Scholars emphasize that these landscapes are not merely technical reclamation projects but lived environments, where perceptions of environmental quality, comfort, and identity play a critical role in shaping their success. Within this context, green infrastructure emerges as a central strategy for achieving both social and ecological regeneration.

Kabisch et al. (2017) demonstrated that green infrastructure contributes ecological benefits that go far beyond aesthetics regulating microclimates, supporting community use, and enhancing biodiversity. Similarly, Haase (2016) assessed resilience metrics in Polish post-industrial cities, highlighting the need to prioritize adaptive reuse and ecological diversity over superficial greening measures. Kowarik and Körner (2005) further argued that climate-adaptive corridors and eco-cultural greenways can generate multifunctional cultural and ecological value in former industrial landscapes.

Despite these advances, critiques of adaptive reuse point to uneven sustainability outcomes, where inclusivity and long-term ecological integrity are often overlooked in favor of economic objectives (Misirlisoy and Günçe, 2016). Collectively, these studies underscore that while post-industrial regeneration holds significant ecological potential, integrating social justice and user experience into design practice remains an ongoing challenge.

The integration of natural systems into urban metabolism is a core principle of ecological and environmental urbanism. Benedict and McMahon (2006) demonstrated how green infrastructure enhances biodiversity and ecological connectivity, whereas Beatley (2010) cautioned that many green initiatives remain tokenistic, prioritizing visual beautification over substantive environmental improvement. Reinforcing this critique, Haase (2016) advocated for comprehensive ecological planning rather than fragmented interventions in adaptive transformations. In this context, Shah et al. (2023) noted that the concept of environmental wisdom shares methodological and ethical parallels with urban metabolism, emphasizing cyclical resource flows, adaptive reuse, and the integration of natural and built systems. This perspective frames the adaptive reuse of historic sites as an ecological indicator of urban metabolism, offering a more integrated and context-sensitive approach to sustainability within the urban fabric.

This approach aligns with international policy frameworks that position green infrastructure as a key mechanism for ecological regeneration and social wellbeing in post-industrial cities. UN-Habitat emphasizes the integration of green and open-space networks within large-scale urban redevelopment to improve environmental quality, accessibility, and social equity, particularly in transforming former industrial landscapes (UN-Habitat, 2020).

Adaptive reuse has been widely recognized as a key strategy for sustainable urban regeneration, particularly in post-industrial settings. Reusing industrial structures preserves embodied energy and minimizes material waste, aligning conservation and redevelopment practices with broader sustainability goals (Bullen and Love, 2011; Shah et al., 2023). Beyond environmental efficiency, adaptive reuse contributes to cultural continuity by recontextualizing obsolete industrial sites into socially meaningful urban spaces and reflecting ecological principles that link historic preservation with urban metabolism (Shah et al., 2023).

However, as Plevoets and Van Cleempoel (2019) observed, mid-20th-century industrial and modernist designs often remain marginalized within mainstream heritage discourse, which tends to privilege ancient or monumental architecture. This oversight limits recognition of the social, ecological, and architectural value embedded in more recent industrial heritage. Misirlisoy and Günçe (2016) further cautioned against superficial approaches to adaptive reuse that prioritize aesthetic renewal or economic profit over deeper social and environmental integration.

At the international level, UNESCO’s Historic Urban Landscape Recommendation frames adaptive reuse as a landscape-based strategy that integrates heritage conservation with environmental systems and contemporary urban life, rather than treating historic sites as isolated artifacts (UNESCO, 2011). Similarly, ICOMOS identifies industrial heritage as a vital cultural resource and advocates reuse approaches that retain both physical fabric and intangible values, including social memory, identity, and public use (ICOMOS, 2017).

Understanding user perception is essential for evaluating the success and social relevance of green infrastructure. Marans and Stimson (2011) emphasized that environmental quality strongly influences user satisfaction, aligning with studies on the performance–quality–happiness pathway, which link the physical characteristics of urban spaces with subjective wellbeing. In Karachi, Ahmed and Sohail (2019) observed that environmental variables such as solar lighting, shading, and drainage are often omitted from post-occupancy assessments of housing satisfaction, while Raza et al. (2016) identified convenience, cleanliness, and security as key determinants of satisfaction in public spaces such as KDA Family Park. These findings underscore the need for integrated frameworks that evaluate both environmental performance and user experience.

Integrating environmental assessment and post-occupancy evaluation (POE) approaches allows for a more holistic understanding of how users experience and interact with urban environments (Marans and Stimson, 2011; Qureshi et al., 2021). While environmental assessments focus on measurable ecological and spatial attributes such as microclimate, vegetation cover, and infrastructure design (Haase, 2016; Kabisch et al., 2017; Li et al., 2023), post-occupancy evaluations capture subjective dimensions including comfort, satisfaction, and emotional attachment (Ahmed and Sohail, 2019; Raza et al., 2016; Hasan and Raza, 2020). Together, these approaches bridge the physical and perceptual aspects of urban liveability, linking environmental performance with human wellbeing and place experience (Han, 2010; Marans and Stimson, 2011).

Methodologically, Ballas and Kalogeresis (2013) applied kernel density estimation to spatially identify hotspots of satisfaction and discomfort, providing a visual means of linking user perceptions with environmental conditions. Brown and Kyttä (2014) expanded this approach by using Public Participation Geographic Information Systems (PPGIS), enabling users to map emotional and experiential responses directly onto spatial environments. More recently, studies using PPGIS and user-perception mapping have demonstrated how spatial clustering of emotional values can be tied to neighbourhood typologies (Villagra et al., 2024) and how modelling combined proximity and perceived quality improves urban green-space access assessments (Canters et al., 2023). This integration of perception data with geographic analysis allows planners to visualize and interpret the affective dimensions of place.

Studies focusing on preservation and environmental quality further reinforce this multidimensional understanding. Kweon et al. (2011) demonstrated that the conversion of green spaces contributes not only to improved air quality but also to higher user satisfaction, while Han (2010) applied the Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS) in Seoul’s eco-restoration projects to measure how users perceive restorative, stress-reducing, and identity-forming qualities of urban green environments.

Collectively, these approaches frame user satisfaction as a multifaceted construct, encompassing emotional wellbeing, spatial experience, and ecological performance. They emphasize that successful post-industrial regeneration must not only restore environmental functions but also nurture psychological comfort, inclusivity, and a sense of belonging among residents.

International agendas further reinforce the importance of user-centred and inclusive public spaces. UN-Habitat highlights that access, comfort, and perceived safety are critical indicators of successful urban environments and should be assessed alongside environmental performance in redevelopment and regeneration projects (UN-Habitat, 2015; 2020).

Despite extensive research across these themes, several critical gaps remain, particularly in the context of rapidly urbanizing cities such as Karachi. First, most studies on post-industrial green infrastructure are concentrated in Europe and East Asia, leaving the Global South underrepresented. Second, assessments of adaptive reuse often separate environmental performance from user perception, resulting in a limited understanding of how ecological interventions align with residents’ experiences and satisfaction. Third, inclusivity, accessibility, and justice remain underexplored; research on Karachi’s public spaces indicates that ostensibly public sites often function as exclusionary environments, a concern especially relevant to gated developments like Naya Nazimabad.

Addressing these gaps requires integrated methods that combine temporal mapping, PRS, PPGIS, and structured surveys to capture ecological quality, comfort, and individual experience from a user-centred perspective. By doing so, Naya Nazimabad becomes a critical case for understanding how user perceptions, not just planning decisions, mediate the social, ecological, and experiential outcomes of post-industrial urban transformation in Karachi.

Despite these international frameworks, their application in rapidly urbanizing cities of the Global South remains limited and uneven. Global policy documents consistently call for context-sensitive, inclusive, and participatory approaches, yet empirical studies from cities such as Karachi demonstrate a persistent gap between policy aspirations and on-the-ground social and environmental outcomes (UNESCO, 2011; UN-Habitat, 2020).

This study adopts a cross-sectional survey design to assess how adaptive reuse and green infrastructure (GI) in a post-industrial estate (Naya Nazimabad, Karachi) shape users’ perceptions of satisfaction, comfort, environmental quality, and sense of belonging. A cross-sectional approach is appropriate for capturing perceptions and behaviours at a single point in time across diverse public-realm settings within the development. Perceptions were recorded from adult residents living at varying distances from parks, shaded streets, and other GI features.

To complement subjective survey responses, temporal mapping using satellite imagery was employed to document physical transformations over the past 2 decades. This dual-method approach enables linking observed ecological interventions with residents’ perceptions of satisfaction, comfort, environmental quality, and sense of belonging.

All participants provided informed consent prior to participation. Respondents were free to withdraw at any stage without any consequence.

The study area is Naya Nazimabad, a large-scale urban regeneration project on a former cement-factory site in Karachi. The target population comprised adult residents (≥18 years) across housing clusters and proximities to parks, shaded streets, and open spaces. A total of N = 141 responses were recorded. The sample is gender-balanced and concentrated among working-age individuals, with heterogeneous residential tenure, features that are analytically valuable for contrasting recent arrivals’ first impressions with longer-term residents’ evaluations of GI performance across seasons and rainfall events.

To augment the survey, temporal mapping was conducted using six satellite images from 2001 to 2024. This spatial analysis captured the growth of green cover, development of green infrastructure, including the expansion of parks, linear green corridors, and shaded streets structured around the former industrial core. As illustrated in the master plan (Figure 1), these green elements form a continuous network linking residential clusters, community facilities, and recreational spaces, thereby supporting walkability, social interaction, and everyday use across the neighbourhood. The mapping exercise enabled the study to relate long-term physical changes in green infrastructure to residents’ evaluations and lived experiences, while more detailed design specifications and performance metrics of individual GI components remain beyond the scope of this study and are identified as areas for future investigation.

The questionnaire was developed from established constructs in urban green space and public realm research and contextualized for Karachi. It comprised multi-item scales for (i) satisfaction with GI amenities (tree-lined/shaded streets, parks/playgrounds, solar lighting, cleanliness/maintenance, drainage/stormwater); (ii) comparative environmental quality (air, noise, biodiversity/greenness, water drainage/flooding) rated against other parts of Karachi; (iii) comfort, belonging, perceived quality-of-life improvement, and a “modern/sustainable” image; (iv) single-item place identity and nature connection; and (v) demographics and exposure (gender, age group, tenure, awareness of the industrial past, perceived inclusivity, frequency of use). Responses used five-point Likert-type scales. The questionnaire was pre-tested with a small convenience subset of residents to refine clarity, sequencing, and local phrasing before full deployment.

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Data for this study were collected through a self-administered survey distributed via resident networks and community channels associated with Naya Nazimabad. This method ensured access for frequent park and open-space users while enabling coverage across various residential clusters within the development. The questionnaire included several sections: demographics and exposure variables (age, gender, tenure, awareness, inclusivity, and frequency of use); satisfaction with green infrastructure (GI) amenities, measured through five items; comparative environmental quality, assessed across four items relative to other parts of Karachi; comfort, sense of belonging, quality of life, and urban image, measured through four items; and single-item measures for place identity and nature connection. In addition to the survey, temporal mapping using Google Earth imagery from 2001, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2020, and 2024 was conducted to trace the physical evolution of Naya Nazimabad. This included monitoring tree cover expansion, developing green corridors, and adaptive reuse of industrial structures. Integrating these spatial data with resident perceptions provided a comprehensive understanding of how long-term landscape transformations have influenced community experiences and environmental awareness in this post-industrial setting.

Ordinal responses were mapped to numerical scores (1–5) and, for multi-item blocks, composite indices were computed as row means using available items (prorated) (Likert, 1932). Missing data were handled pairwise (Dai, 2021). Internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) indicated acceptable-to-strong reliability (Boateng et al., 2018) (Table 1).

Temporal mapping relied on high-resolution Google Earth imagery from 2001 to 2024. Key features, such as tree cover, green corridors, and adaptive reuse structures, were manually interpreted and cross-validated with field observations and planning documentation to ensure consistency and accuracy over time.

The analysis of survey data proceeded in five stages to move from measurement to structure, equity, drivers, and mechanism.

Descriptive profiling of respondents by gender, age, tenure, awareness, inclusivity, and frequency of use.

For the Temporal Mapping Analysis, satellite imagery was analysed to trace land-use change, green cover expansion, green corridor development, and adaptive reuse of post-industrial structures over 2 decades (2001–2024).

To examine long-term land-use transitions and landscape transformation within the study area, this research employed temporal mapping based on time-series satellite imagery. The approach focuses on visually tracing spatial and morphological changes over time using consistently georeferenced images, allowing for the identification of gradual urban and ecological transformations.

Rather than relying on algorithm-driven change detection or pixel-level classification, the study adopted a qualitative temporal analysis using archived high-resolution satellite images available through Google Earth. This method enabled comparisons across multiple time slices to document shifts in land use, built form, and green cover at the parcel and neighbourhood scales. Temporal mapping has been widely used in urban and planning research as an effective means of capturing long-term development patterns, particularly in contexts where historical ground data or computational resources are limited.

For the Naya Nazimabad case study, a chronological sequence of satellite images was analysed to trace the transformation of the former cement factory site and adjacent barren land into a planned residential development with integrated green infrastructure. The mapped temporal sequence visually demonstrates the progressive phases of site clearance, construction, and landscape development. These visual observations form the spatial evidence base for the subsequent analysis of adaptive reuse, post-industrial redevelopment, and environmental integration.

As a self-administered survey within a single development, results may over-represent more engaged or digitally reachable residents and cannot substitute for a probability household frame. While N = 141 is adequate for PCA and ordinal models on concise indices, generalization beyond Naya Nazimabad should be approached with caution. GI perception is season-sensitive, and cross-sectional data may not fully capture temporal variations such as extreme rainfall events. Future work could adopt mixed-methods, walk-along interviews, systematic observation of park use, and longitudinal panels to triangulate perceptual indices with behavioural traces and hydrologic performance records. Temporal mapping relied on imagery available only from 2001, with the latest update in March 2024, limiting insights into earlier or more recent transformations.

The sample (N = 141) is gender-balanced (51.8% women, 47.5% men), concentrated in working-age groups (18–45 ≈ 78%), and mixed in tenure (16.3% < 1 year; 48.2% 1–3; 24.1% 4–6; 10.6% > 6). Awareness of the site’s industrial past is widespread (81.6% “Yes”). As shown in Table 2, most report frequent green-space use (daily 29.1%; several times/weeks 39.7%), and a large majority perceive public spaces as inclusive (87.2%).

PCA was conducted on the standardized item correlation matrix. We report signed component loadings (correlations), such that for each component j The sum of squared loadings across variables equals the component’s eigenvalue. Components were retained using the scree criterion (elbow at Component 4) and the Kaiser rule (eigenvalue >1). For interpretability, the loading matrix was rotated using orthogonal varimax, which preserves total explained variance while redistributing it across components.

The unrotated eigenvalues used for retention (scree) are PC1 = 5.955; PC2 = 1.950; PC3 = 1.275; PC4 = 1.050 (cumulative ≈0.682). After rotation, the rotated SS-loadings are PC1 = 3.089; PC2 = 2.957; PC3 = 2.617; PC4 = 1.649 (proportions 0.206, 0.197, 0.174, 0.110; cumulative ≈0.687) (Table 4). Table 3 presents signed, varimax-rotated loadings with a suppression threshold of ∣ loading ∣ ≥ 0.40 ; communalities ( h 2 ) are shown for each item.

PC1: Wellbeing, Belonging and Identity. Strong, common-direction loadings on personal comfort (−0.658), belonging (−0.741), perceived GI-related quality-of-life gains (−0.610), “modern/sustainable” image (−0.454), neighbourhood identity (−0.798), and nature connection (−0.798). (Component sign is arbitrary up to reflection; interpretation relies on the set of items moving together.)

Table 3 presents signed, varimax-rotated loadings with a suppression threshold of ∣ loading ∣ ≥ 0.40 ; cells below the threshold are left blank by design. Communalities ( h 2 ) are reported for each item. The rotated variance summary appears in Table 4.

Distributional differences are summarized in Table 5. Kruskal–Wallis results indicate distributional differences aligned with inclusive regeneration. Belonging/comfort (index) is higher among respondents who perceive public spaces as inclusive (p = 0.0006), among more frequent users (p = 0.0099), and among those aware of the site’s industrial past (p = 0.0385). Place identity rises with usage frequency (p = 0.0028) and residential tenure (p = 0.0092). Nature connection also varies by usage (p = 0.0206), tenure (p = 0.0413), and perceived inclusivity (p = 0.0452). Satisfaction with green infrastructure amenities is higher with greater use (p = 0.0084) and perceptions of inclusivity (p = 0.0134). Taken together, these patterns suggest that access conditions and routine engagement are key channels through which GI delivers social benefits: belonging and comfort are amplified where spaces feel inclusive and are used frequently, identity strengthens with tenure and habitual engagement, and quality-weighted accessibility matters because inequalities in access to valued GI characteristics shape who benefits. Consistent with this, evidence from Thessaloniki shows low satisfaction with local UGS and longer trips to preferred, higher-quality sites, underscoring that users prioritize quality and functionality (e.g., larger parks with amenities) over simple proximity.

Ordinal logistic model (Table 6) for the belonging item identifies comparative environmental quality (EnvQuality) as the strongest predictor of higher belonging categories (coef = 1.406, SE = 0.282, z = 4.989, p < 0.001; standardized β ≈ 1.107). Satisfaction with GI amenities (p = 0.093) and residential tenure (p = 0.060) are positive and near significant, while awareness of the site’s industrial past (p = 0.134), perceived inclusivity (p = 0.483), usage frequency (p = 0.544), and age (p = 0.967) remain directionally consistent but attenuated once environmental quality and satisfaction are included. Substantively, perceived gains in air quality, noise, biodiversity/greenness, and drainage relative to the Karachi baseline most strongly shift respondents into higher belonging categories, with satisfaction and length of residence providing supportive effects. This aligns with the broader UGS literature, which finds that perceived quality (quietness, cleanliness, shade, biodiversity, water, safety) is more decisive than proximity in driving use and wellbeing, and can motivate longer travel to reach higher-quality spaces.

Bootstrapped indirect effects and paths are summarized in Table 7. Usage increases Satisfaction (a = 0.239), which elevates Belonging/Comfort (b = 0.294), yielding a positive indirect effect a × b = 0.072 with a non-zero 95% CI [0.013, 0.150]; the direct effect of usage controlling for satisfaction is smaller (c′ = 0.125). This points to a behavioural-to-affective pathway: routine engagement primarily boosts perceived amenity quality, which then strengthens belonging, underscoring the value of programming that sustains frequent use and consistently high GI quality. Practically, this suggests that regeneration in Naya Nazimabad should: (i) maintain comparative environmental advantages (air/noise context, biodiversity, drainage), (ii) use inclusive design and management to ensure comfortable public realms for diverse groups and promote routine use, and (iii) deploy narrative strategies that communicate the industrial-to-green transition to convert place-history awareness into pride and identity. Overall, the indirect effect implies that repeated engagement with green/open spaces heightens satisfaction with GI, which subsequently strengthens belonging/comfort, aligning with evidence that users travel beyond local thresholds for higher perceived quality and that repeated exposure consolidates trust and perceived performance in the public realm.

The research findings from reading and analysing the satellite imagery highlight the historic versus current land-use footprints of the post-industrial site of the Naya Nazimabad housing scheme. The six images provide temporal snapshots that trace patterns of transformation and the evolving landscape, enabling a systematic analysis of ecological interventions in a gradual manner, as shown in Figure 2. The findings are based on visual interpretation of archived satellite imagery rather than algorithmic change detection.

The earliest available Google Earth image, from 2001, shows the baseline condition of the site, dominated by industrial use. A steel mill occupies the western side, while a cement factory is located on the eastern side. The rest of the site appears barren and degraded, with no traces of other land uses. A clear boundary separates the empty industrial area from the adjacent urban neighbourhood.

The industrial footprints are clearly visible in the image of 2005. The buildings on the western side resemble standard warehouse-style structures typical of a steel mill. The eastern side shows the presence of chimneys and additional factory-related structures.

Some areas indicate urban expansion and informal settlement growth in the year 2010. Notably, a large patch of surface water is visible near the centre of the site, a feature that does not appear in any of the other five temporal images. This observation may reflect temporary surface water accumulation or localized waterlogging, potentially linked to the presence of natural springs in the surrounding Mangopir town area. However, in the absence of hydrological measurements, this feature is interpreted as an observed spatial condition rather than confirmed flooding.

The 2015 image shows that the steel mill on the western side still marks its location, though its activities appear non-functional, and a clear gated boundary surrounds it. On the eastern side, the cement factory is still absent, while urban footprints are beginning to emerge. The land reveals the initial demarcation of a planned road network, and at the entrance, a large circular green space highlights the presence of green infrastructure and an emerging sense of ecological urbanism.

Green footprints become increasingly visible in the 2020 image. The transition from cement factory barren land to a residential scheme is evident. Clearly defined road networks and spacious residential blocks with open green spaces and sports facilities can be observed. The new layer of landscape reflects the transformation from industrial degradation to a model urban housing scheme. Green-shaded and open spaces emphasize the ecological development of Naya Nazimabad.

The latest updated source, from March 2024, shows a fully developed housing scheme with a visible green network, sports and recreational facilities such as parks and communal areas. The settlement pattern demonstrates careful consideration of green infrastructure, vegetation, and ecological features. The image also clearly shows the steel mill buildings on the western side, with approximately 50% of the area still intact, enclosed by gated boundary walls and separate from the residential scheme.

To complement the temporal mapping analysis, the current site photographs in Figure 3 illustrate the existing condition of green infrastructure across Naya Nazimabad. These images highlight tree-lined boulevards, stormwater-sensitive areas, parks, and the adaptive reuse of industrial structures, providing visual confirmation of the ecological and spatial transformations identified in the temporal imagery. By linking observed changes over time with present-day conditions, the photographs offer tangible evidence of the spatial configuration of green infrastructure and its perceived microclimatic and environmental role, as suggested by shading, vegetation density, and landscape design features.

Findings indicate that adaptive reuse and ecological interventions in Naya Nazimabad are associated with substantial spatial transformation and improved perceived environmental quality. Temporal mapping illustrates the expansion of green cover, reuse of industrial structures, and the introduction of stormwater-sensitive landscape features. These changes reflect a shift toward environmentally responsive urban form and landscape configuration over 2 decades. However, in the absence of hydrological or ecological measurements, these features are interpreted as observed spatial interventions with potential ecological roles, rather than demonstrated functional outcomes.

Resident survey responses further suggest that well-maintained, vegetated, and internally inclusive GI enhances perceived quality of life, sense of belonging, and place identity. The presence of both short- and long-term residents enabled assessment of how sustained exposure to GI shapes experiential outcomes over time. While residents associate green infrastructure with improved environmental conditions, these findings reflect perceptions aligned with spatial change, rather than verified ecological performance. For practitioners, this highlights the importance of design quality, maintenance, and inclusivity.

Analysis shows that perceived quality, rather than proximity, drives use and perceived benefits of urban green spaces. Features such as quietness, shade, cleanliness, perceived biodiversity, and water elements attract users, while technical aspects, particularly drainage are evaluated independently based on residents’ experience in risk-sensitive areas. These patterns align with broader UGS literature, emphasizing that experiential and perceived functional quality shapes engagement and satisfaction.

Internal equity and inclusivity emerge as key pathways through which GI delivers social benefits within the gated community. Belonging and comfort increase when spaces feel inclusive and are used frequently, and place identity strengthens with longer tenure and habitual engagement. Quality-weighted accessibility is critical, as inequalities in access influence who benefits from GI. Ordinal logistic regression confirms that residents who report perceived improvements in air quality, reduced noise, greenery, biodiversity, and drainage effectiveness also report higher levels of neighbourhood belonging. Mediation analysis further indicates that repeated use enhances satisfaction, which in turn strengthens feelings of comfort and belonging. These findings suggest that active engagement translates perceived environmental quality into localized social cohesion, rather than confirming ecological performance.

Inclusivity emerges as a cross-cutting theme linking environmental design with social justice. Residents who perceive parks and promenades as accessible across ages, genders, and socioeconomic groups report higher satisfaction, indicating that equitable GI enhances internal resident experiences. Temporal mapping further illustrates the site’s transformation from an industrial landscape to a visually greener and more spatially diverse urban environment, highlighting stages of ecological and spatial restructuring over 2 decades. The increasing presence of vegetation, open spaces, and integrated landscape features reflects the growing recognition of GI as central to urban livability.

However, the introduction of a gated enclave raises concerns about ecological connectivity and universal access. While 2024 imagery shows progress in biodiversity, recreational facilities, and greenways, spatial enclosure may limit social inclusivity, exemplifying the tension between private development and broader social inclusivity in post-industrial urban projects.