Water resource management is recognized as a fundamental cornerstone in addressing natural disasters, playing a vital role in reducing their harmful impacts. Earthquakes can inflict a range of structural damages (Sadeghi-Movahhed et al., 2025; Sadeghi-Movahhed et al., 2024; Majdi et al., 2023; Sadeghi Movahhed et al., 2023; Daniell et al., 2017). Fires Following Earthquakes (FFE) regarded as the most damaging secondary consequence of earthquakes, has caused billions of dollars in losses for various societies in the past (Trifunac and Todorovska, 1998; Mousavi et al., 2008; Butcher et al., 1988; Salazar and McNutt, 2011; The Japan Times, 2024; Lee et al., 2008). In some cases, the damages caused by FFE have far surpassed those of the initial earthquake (Elhami Khorasani and Garlock, 2017). This phenomenon has frequently and extensively occurred in past incidents, presenting serious challenges to urban crisis management infrastructures (Scawthorn, 2009; MaCaffrey, 1983).

The impact of severe earthquakes on urban infrastructures, particularly energy lines and water supply networks, has always been a major concern in disaster management and urban planning (Matsumura et al., 2015; Jiang et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2011; Alavi et al., 2024; Butler et al., 2017; Ansari et al., 2025). Historically, during severe earthquakes, energy lines and water supply networks in cities have frequently suffered significant damage (Butler et al., 2017; Shuang et al., 2019; Li et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2021; Leig et al., 2019; Uma et al., 2021; Qian et al., 2023). The 1971 San Fernando earthquake resulted in 116 ignitions, causing extensive damage to urban pipelines and water reservoirs. Ultimately, firefighters successfully prevented the spread of the fires by utilizing pools as water sources (Jennings and Wood, 1973; Scawthorn et al., 2005). The 1994 Northridge earthquake resulted in 110 ignitions, over 1,000 leaks in the water system, and damage to pump stations and storage tanks, which caused a reduction in water pressure. Ultimately, the fires were suppressed by firefighters using alternative water sources before they could spread further (Scawthorn et al., 1998).

In the past, reduced water pressure and pipeline ruptures following earthquakes have caused serious disruptions in water distribution across cities (Choi et al., 2018; Shojaeian et al., 2021). Research has shown that the reconstruction of water supply networks after earthquakes is complex and time-consuming, requiring comprehensive modeling of hydraulic conditions and vulnerability assessments (Shuang et al., 2019; Choi et al., 2018). As a result, the provision of alternative water sources is considered one of the most critical challenges in suppressing FFF in urban areas. Some advanced cities, such as San Francisco, have attempted to reduce reliance on the primary water supply network and increase resilience against FFF by establishing alternative water sources. Therefore, the construction of emergency water reservoirs is among the most essential factors for the effective suppression of FFF and minimizing damages. Unlike sources such as wells, the use of reservoirs also minimizes risks associated with power grid fluctuations and pumping disruptions.

Given past incidents, a significant amount of water resources is required for the suppression of FFF. In this regard, it is essential to allocate emergency water reservoirs specifically for suppressing FFF, ensuring they are not simultaneously used for other critical situations. For example, during the Kobe earthquake, water authority officials prohibited firefighters from using certain urban water sources for up to 12 h after the occurrence of FFF due to concerns about drinking water shortages (Scawthorn, 1996). The need for emergency drinking water after an earthquake is one of the primary critical conditions that can arise simultaneously (Santa-Cruz et al., 2024). Given that the volume of water required for drinking and suppression in post-earthquake conditions within a city can be substantial, separate reservoirs must be allocated for each purpose. This approach has been implemented in cities like San Francisco, informed by their experiences in dealing with the FFE phenomenon (Van Dyke, 1996; Scawthorn, 2011). The presence of dedicated emergency water reservoirs can be highly effective in significantly reducing operational time.

On the other hand, today we are faced with megacities that are becoming increasingly crowded and larger. These cities are typically characterized by features such as increased population and building density, severe traffic congestion, and inadequate access networks. Additionally, there are challenges in the proper utilization of resources. Due to the interplay of these characteristics, the formation of vulnerable structures in various parts of cities becomes more likely in post-earthquake conditions and the resulting fires. Therefore, identifying the optimal locations for emergency water reservoirs to suppress FFF is essential for enhancing efficiency and ensuring proper utilization of these reservoirs. According to the literature, no studies have been conducted specifically on the optimal location of emergency water reservoirs for FFE suppression. However, a broader review of the literature reveals that studies have been carried out on optimal location planning for earthquake and post-earthquake conditions, focusing on objectives such as determining the placement of shelters and facilities (Hsu et al., 2022; Toma-Danila et al., 2022). Therefore, since the discussed location planning is directly related to earthquake and post-earthquake conditions, the literature is reviewed by examining studies in these fields.

Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) approaches provide a robust framework for analyzing complex problems that involve multiple, and often conflicting, criteria (Sahoo and Goswami, 2023; Goswami et al., 2025). These methods are widely applied in urban planning, risk assessment, and disaster management, where decision-making requires balancing technical, environmental, and social factors (Gaievskyi et al., 2025; Khosravian et al., 2024; Cajot et al., 2017; Halder et al., 2025). Among various MCDM techniques—such as TOPSIS, PROMETHEE, and ELECTRE—the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is one of the most widely used due to its transparent structure, pairwise comparison mechanism, and ability to incorporate expert judgment (Jalal-ud-Din et al., 2025; Susmaga et al., 2024). The choice of AHP is also supported by previous studies in disaster management and spatial decision-making, where it has demonstrated effectiveness in integrating expert judgment with geospatial data (Morales and de Vries, 2021; Wang et al., 2025). This study employs AHP not only for its methodological advantages but also for its strong compatibility with GIS-based spatial analysis, enabling the integration of expert-based weights with spatial layers to identify optimal locations for emergency water reservoirs (Tanoumand et al., 2025).

Since its introduction by Saaty, AHP has been the subject of extensive theoretical and methodological development (Saaty, 2013). Comprehensive surveys have cataloged its applications across engineering, environmental management, and public policy domains, highlighting both its intuitive pairwise comparison framework and rigorous consistency checks (Ishizaka and Labib, 2011; Vaidya and Kumar, 2006). Subsequent research has extended AHP to handle uncertainty via fuzzy and interval‐valued adaptations and to support group decision-making through consensus-building techniques (Escobar and Moreno-jiménez, 2007; Xu and Liao, 2014). Comparative studies further underscore AHP’s robustness relative to alternative MCDM methods, particularly in contexts requiring transparent, expert-driven weighting of criteria (Gebre et al., 2021). These advances reinforce the method’s scientific rigor and justify its application in GIS-based reservoir siting under emergency scenarios.

Research indicates that the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (Environmental Systems Research Institute ESRI, 2020) and MCDM models can significantly enhance the location planning process by integrating risk assessments and stakeholder inputs (Grzeda et al., 2014; Bakhshi Lomer et al., 2023; Hosseini et al., 2022; Sisay et al., 2025). Shao et al. in their study, emphasized that the application of the AHP (Vaidya and Kumar, 2006) for determining the optimal locations of drinking water reservoirs in general emergency situations can significantly expedite access to water resources during critical conditions (Shao et al., 2018). Abdolazimi et al. conducted a study on the optimal placement of emergency drinking water reservoirs using the AHP for post-earthquake scenarios in Shiraz, Iran. In this research, proximity to criteria such as deteriorated urban areas, population density, and adequate accessibility were identified as the most critical factors (Abdolazimi et al., 2022).

The study by Chou et al. on determining the capacity of emergency shelters revealed that evaluating locations based on geographic and demographic criteria can lead to better decision-making in critical situations. They specifically emphasized the importance of proximity to densely populated areas and rapid access to main roads (Chou et al., 2013). Lomer et al. proposed a decision-support system aimed at identifying the most suitable locations for emergency shelters, emphasizing the significance of local context in the decision-making process (Bakhshi Lomer et al., 2023). Additionally, Chen et al. highlighted the necessity of excluding high-risk areas, such as locations near chemical storage facilities, to ensure the safety and effectiveness of emergency shelters (Chen et al., 2018). This approach not only facilitates timely disaster response but also strengthens community resilience (Perrucci and Baroud, 2020; Zhong and Lu, 2018; Sood et al., 2016).

GIS and AHP have also been utilized in identifying optimal locations and prioritizing them for the placement of water reservoirs under normal conditions (Ajitha and Viji, 2023; Bakhtyar Ali Ahmad et al., 2015; Huang et al., 2018; Yi and Tu, 2018; Li et al., 2016). In these studies, factors such as pipelines, elevation, land use, road networks, water supply networks, and slope have been considered as determining criteria for selecting suitable locations for this category of reservoirs. Overall, as highlighted in the literature, one of the prominent approaches in the field of emergency infrastructure location planning is the integration of AHP and GIS. This combination serves as a powerful tool for selection, evaluation, decision-making, and visual representation. The AHP enables a comprehensive evaluation of multiple diverse criteria, leveraging its strength in analyzing complex problems. It allows decision-makers to systematically compare various criteria and select the best option (Saaty, 1987). GIS also facilitates the analysis and integration of criteria within a graphical environment, based on the actual dimensions of geographic information with high precision (Environmental Systems Research Institute ESRI, 2020).

This paper presents a MCDM method that combines AHP and GIS for the optimal location planning of emergency water reservoirs to suppress FFF. In fact, the proposed framework is presented with the aim of addressing existing gaps in studies related to water resource management and identifying their optimal locations for the efficient suppression of FFF. In this method, initial locations for the study area are selected based on post-earthquake damage conditions, accessibility, and economic factors. In the next step, the initially identified locations are scored based on influential criteria and distance classes, which are weighted using the AHP methodology. The weighted criteria and distance classes are converted into spatial layers within ArcGIS. These layers are then combined and analyzed to identify the optimal locations. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, the process has been implemented in the city of Tehran. Ultimately, the study provides a comprehensive map in which the optimal locations for the placement of emergency water reservoirs in the city of Tehran are scored. Hereafter in this paper, the term emergency water reservoirs will be used instead of emergency water reservoirs for suppressing FFF.

In metropolises facing the risk of FFF, the design and implementation of effective strategies to suppress this phenomenon, as well as enhancing their efficiency through crisis management planning, play a significant role in reducing economic, social, and human losses. In this study, a comprehensive approach is proposed for the optimal location planning of emergency water reservoirs, specifically tailored to the unique conditions of FFF. This framework is illustrated in Figure 1. This framework consists of six main stages and is designed to enhance the accuracy and effectiveness of the location planning process by considering various dimensions of decision-making.

This process begins with selecting the study area, where the geographical and environmental characteristics of the region are examined to determine the significance of suppressing FFE hazards. In the second stage, potential initial locations for the establishment of emergency water reservoirs are identified based on criteria such as vulnerability, accessibility, and economic considerations. Then, through a literature review and analysis of operational needs, influential criteria for location planning are identified to establish a reliable model. In the next stage, appropriate distance classes are determined by considering post-earthquake conditions and the speed of firefighting vehicles to ensure optimal response times. The criteria and distance classes are weighted using the AHP method and then converted into spatial layers within the ArcGIS software. Finally, these layers are combined, and the optimal locations for establishing emergency reservoirs are ranked based on their scores, culminating in the presentation of a comprehensive map.

This study presents a novel methodology for identifying optimal locations of emergency water reservoirs to suppress FFE incidents, with specific application to Tehran. The analysis results, presented in Figure 13, demonstrate a comprehensive evaluation framework that integrates (Sadeghi-Movahhed et al., 2025): SPCs classified through AHP-weighted distance classification, and (Sadeghi-Movahhed et al., 2024) FRCs derived from all critical variables influencing FFE occurrence and spread potential. The combined application of these weighted criteria enables precise identification of optimal reservoir locations that effectively balance accessibility for fire suppression teams with high-risk zone coverage. Additionally, in Figure 14, the entire city of Tehran is presented based on the weighting method applied in this study. This can serve as a guideline for other open spaces in case constructing reservoirs in parks encounters limitations.

Both FRC and SPC play equally vital yet distinct roles in optimal reservoir siting: FRC stratifies urban areas based on FFE occurrence and spread risks, while SPC classifies zones according to land uses affecting both FFE probability and emergency response access. Given their complementary but equally critical nature in emergency planning, each criterion group was assigned an equal 0.5 weighting coefficient in the final suitability assessment, ensuring balanced consideration of both risk mitigation and operational efficiency in the siting process.

The optimal location of emergency water reservoirs has been determined considering post-earthquake conditions. In this regard, parks have been selected as suitable options for the placement of these reservoirs among other locations, as these spaces provide greater reliability in terms of vulnerability, accessibility, and economic considerations. In particular, the absence of heavy structures in these spaces significantly reduces the impact of intense ground shaking and helps maintain the stability of systems associated with emergency water supply. Additionally, in critical post-earthquake conditions, selecting parks as key points enables the rapid activation of support systems and helps mitigate earthquake-induced damages.

The critical importance of optimal location for emergency water reservoirs is particularly emphasized in densely populated urban areas with high vulnerability, where risks of widespread fires, severe traffic congestion, and route blockages are elevated. Accordingly, the site selection process has been conducted by incorporating an FFE risk map based on established FRCs. Optimal siting in such areas can significantly reduce response time, improve accessibility, minimize vulnerability risks for emergency water reservoirs, and ultimately enhance fire suppression performance while reducing both human casualties and economic losses.

Subsequently, the process of identifying influential criteria for optimal site selection was conducted. Specifically, all factors affecting FFE were considered as FFE risk criteria. Additionally, influential land uses - including proximity to major roads, fire stations, commercial zones, industrial/workshop areas, and therapeutic facilities - were identified and weighted as spatial proximity criteria based on historical FFE experiences and operational requirements. The detailed description and weighting of each criterion are comprehensively presented in Table 8.

The results of the spatial proximity criteria weighting revealed that proximity to main routes and fire stations has the greatest impact on scoring the placement of emergency water reservoirs. These findings highlight the importance of quick access to emergency water reservoirs and proper spatial coordination between reservoirs and fire stations in post-earthquake crisis conditions. In such scenarios, reducing distances can accelerate firefighting responses and improve access to emergency water resources, which is crucial for mitigating damages and losses caused by FFF.

For better analysis, the distance classifications have been divided into six groups based on access time ranges, average speed, and the round-trip paths of firefighting vehicles between FFE locations and emergency water reservoirs (Table 9). The distance classifications were weighted based on the expert opinions of the authors to achieve more accurate analyses during the final decision-making process.

Results indicated that Location reservoirs at distances of less than 4,000 m simultaneously from rom major routes, fire stations, and commercial, industrial, and therapeutic centers ensures that fire engines can access the reservoirs in under 10 min even under worst-case conditions. Moreover, placing the tanks at optimally chosen Locations (within 800 m) reduces the access time to below 2 min Therefore, distances of less than 800 m hold particular significance. These shorter distances are especially important due to the reduced travel times for fire trucks on round trips to emergency water reservoirs. In post-earthquake conditions, where firefighting teams need to frequently refill their water tanks and make repeated trips, shorter distances can play a crucial role in minimizing response times and ensuring the optimal use of emergency water reservoirs.

In the proposed framework process, each park is weighted locally and independently, meaning the weighting of each park is determined based on its proximity to the surrounding influential criteria. This approach enables regional analyses in various urban areas, allowing the optimal locations for the placement of emergency water reservoirs to be identified independently within each urban zone at a local scale.

Multiple fires that may occur following an earthquake pose a significant threat to earthquake-prone communities. To address this, various models have been developed for simulating FFF and estimating the amount of water required for their suppression. In this context, the location of emergency water resources for suppression is considered one of the key factors in crisis management strategies. Optimal location of emergency water reservoirs to reduce response time and ensure better access for firefighting vehicles can significantly limit fire spread and consequently play a crucial role in reducing financial and human losses. In this study, a framework for the optimal location of emergency water reservoirs for FFE suppression has been proposed. This method focuses on reducing response times, improving accessibility, and minimizing the vulnerability risks of emergency water reservoirs in post-earthquake conditions. Initially, by considering potential post-earthquake damages, accessibility, and economic considerations, the most suitable areas are selected as primary locations for reservoir placement. Subsequently, based on weighted influential criteria and distance classifications using the AHP method and ArcGIS, a map of optimal locations for emergency water reservoir location is provided. Using the proposed framework, the optimal location of emergency water reservoirs for the city of Tehran was conducted. Finally, the following results can also be inferred from the observations and evaluations:

• Parks were identified as the most suitable urban land use for the initial placement of emergency water reservoirs, considering post-earthquake damage conditions, accessibility, and economic considerations.

The proposed approach in this article can be effective for all urban communities, including metropolises, that require the establishment of water resources to address the FFE phenomenon. In this study, the initial candidates considered for the placement of emergency water reservoirs are based on expert opinions tailored to the conditions of Tehran. Therefore, for application in other communities with different conditions, further research in this area is required for improvement and greater advancement.