Over the past decade, experts in transport planning, geography, economics, and policy have increasingly recognized global differences in travel behaviours and activity patterns between men and women. This awareness has driven research into the complex links among transportation, mobility, and gender across both developed and developing contexts (Rosenbloom et al., 1993; Spitzner, 1998; Terlinden, 1994; Fernando, 1997; Kinyingi et al., 2020). However, gender-focused transport studies remain limited and less conclusive in less developed countries.

Walking, the most fundamental and oldest transport mode, is integral to nearly all trips. Despite its importance, serious attention to walking only emerged in recent decades. European cities have generally supported walking better than regions like North America and Australia. Yet, during the car-focused planning of the 1950s and 1960s, even European pedestrians were largely neglected (Buehler et al., 2017). Goel et al. (2023) argue that walking and cycling should be integrated into daily life as essential physical activities. Active travel is linked to Heightened physical activity (Roth et al., 2012; Sahlqvist et al., 2012), which significantly reduces all-cause mortality and the risks of chronic illnesses, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer (Bull et al., 2025; Warburton and Bredin, 2017). Promoting active travel is therefore critical to public health.

Motherwell (Motherwell, 2018) observes that efforts to build inclusive cities have stalled, and women still face numerous travel-related barriers. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the potential of reducing motorized travel to improve urban quality (Goenaga et al., 2021; Albayati et al., 2021; Liu and Stern, 2021; Wang and Li, 2021; Aderib et al., 2025), while also exposing planning flaws—such as inadequate walking infrastructure, lack of local services, and difficulty accessing areas without a car, especially when public transport is unsafe or unavailable. These issues call for more sustainable, equitable, inclusive, and safe mobility systems.

Though women understand the benefits of active travel, inclusivity demands a planning shift that involves all genders from the outset. Haynes et al. (2019) show growing evidence of gender differences in commute lengths, trip purposes, mode choices, and how life events—like childbirth—affect mobility differently. The focus must move from expecting women to adapt, to embedding gender analysis into transport policy and planning. While walking has been extensively studied in developed nations, it is under-researched in developing countries like South Africa. Furthermore, gender disparities in active mobility remain inadequately addressed in many developing regions, where women are among the most vulnerable populations.

Hence, this study fills that gap by examining gender variation in the use of active mobility. This approach should consider the evidence and lived experiences of women who have been found to be fundamentally deprived from achieving basic life goals compared to the male counterparts due to the differences in their socio-economic status and family commitment, such as childbearing, among others, which impact their mobility. Given the varying degrees of gender inequality across different countries, This study contributes to existing research by isolating variation in factors influencing active trave by gender, as well as identifying difficulties being faced by women in utilizing active mobility which has been found to be of great importance to health and wellbeing of individuals in the society. Based on this, we aimed to assess the progress made toward gender equality in active travel, with an emphasis on the experiences of women who cycle and walk in the urban context of Johannesburg, South Africa.

The study utilised primary data from an online survey conducted via Google Forms using random sampling. The survey was shared on Facebook, WhatsApp, and institutional emails to reach Johannesburg residents. Designed in line with previous research (Aderib et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2021), the survey yielded 425 completed questionnaires for analysis.

The data covered socio-demographics, travel characteristics, and gender-based factors influencing active mobility. Section 1 gathered socio-economic details, including gender, age, education, income, and marital status. Section 2 focused on travel data such as trip frequency, travel purposes (work, shopping, healthcare, recreation), duration, transport modes, and expenses. The final section examined factors affecting active mobility use.

The sample size was determined using the Taro Yamane (see Equation 1), suitable for finite populations with a known size. The formula used for sample size calculation is as follows: n = N 1 + N e 2 (1) where

n: Required sample size,

A report published by Statistics South Africa in 2022, and cited by the World Population Review (World Population Review, 2022), estimated Johannesburg’s population at 5,782,747 in the year 2020. Using this population figure, a sample size of 400 was derived. The calculation process is presented below: n = 5 , 782 , 747 1 + 5782747   X 0.05 2 5782747 14457.87 = 399.9 n = 400

Our study on gender differences in active mobility found that more men were educated than women, consistent with Evans et al. (2021), who highlight persistent lower education levels for women globally. This is partly due to women’s greater family duties in Africa, limiting postgraduate enrollment after marriage. Employment disparities reflect Aderibigbe and Gumbo (2022) findings of more men in government jobs. Income gaps also mirror education and employment differences, as noted by Van Dijk (2005), Ragnedda et al. (2019), Aderibigbe (2021), linking socio-economic factors to the gendered digital divide. Women’s preference for non-motorised transport aligns with Jennings et al. (2020) and Aderibigbe and Gumbo (2024), who report women often avoid motorised travel to save money and manage households. This is evident in our findings where women earn lower income compared to the male counterparts, which may further influence the use of non-motorised travel by women compared to the male counterparts. Overall, gender disparities in education, employment, income, and car ownership are evident.

Our findings on trip frequency differ from Best and Lanzendorf (2005), Boarnet and Sarmiento (1998), and Ng and Acker (2018), who found men make more trips in developed countries. In contrast, in developing cities like Johannesburg, women make more trips due to school runs and shopping. Levy (2013) observed similar patterns in Hanoi, where women’s trip chaining and off-peak travel increase trip frequency. Ng and Acker (2018) also linked shorter female commutes to trip chaining. Our results on active mobility support Goel et al. (2023) and Ko et al. (2019), showing women walk more and use active mobility for short trips, relying on public transport for longer journeys.

Women identified safety and security as the most significant factors influencing active mobility use, particularly in developing cities like Johannesburg, where crime is a shared concern for both genders. Prior studies (Haynes et al., 2019; Ontario Professional Planning Institute OPPI, 2012; Jennings et al., 2020; Oliveira and Lima, 2023; Carriel et al., 2022) also highlight safety as a key issue in active travel as this discourages its use or adoption, particularly, when they are either being attacked on the road or when they are prone to accidents from vehicles during active mobility. Men, who mostly use private vehicles, ranked public transport conditions lower (6th position), reinforcing findings by Fasina et al. (2020) and Aderibigbe et al. (2024) that poor public transport in Johannesburg and Nigeria pushes commuters towards active travel or private cars. Our findings challenge Potoglou and Arslangulova (2017) on the impact of travel distance in active mobility, as women ranked it 9th, compared to 4th for men, likely due to their shorter trips reducing reliance on motorised transport. The study of Potoglou and Arslangulova (2017) which noted that women consider their trip distance, as long distance trips do not encourage them to use non-motorised transport (walking/cycling), however, our study challenges this assertion as women from our study do not prirotize travel distance or give it a major consideration as a significant factor in using active mobility. This may be as a result of the short distance trips (less than or 1 km) that women in johannesburg undertake compared to the men who often travel longer distances (over 2 km), hence, may not have an adverse effect on the adoption of active travel as a mode of transport. Although, trip distance is often considered in the use of active travel as identified by Aderibigbe and Gumbo (2024), this study contradicts such assertion probably due to the age of women involved and the precise location, as rural women who are elderly (60 years and above) in the studies of Aderibigbe and Gumbo (2024), Aderib et al. (2025) which asserted that older women who use active mobility does that during long distance trips.

Factors such as safety, pedestrian facilities, travel time, private vehicle availability, income level, and public transport conditions significantly influence active mobility choices, supporting findings by Haynes et al. (2019), Jennings et al. (2020), Oliveira and Lima (2023), Carriel et al. (2022), and Meesit et al. (2023). To enhance active mobility for women making shorter trips, rest areas along pedestrian and bicycle paths, with tree shading, should be provided to improve comfort and reduce fatigue during travel.

Current strategies to promote active living at the population level are shifting from individual behavior interventions and experimental research designs towards real-world natural experiments that produce transferable evidence. These experiments increasingly incorporate in-depth qualitative analyses to understand the underlying factors that can drive changes and promote active travel, which offers numerous benefits to individuals and cities. This study examined the decision-making process and adoption of active mobility with a focus on gender differences. Our findings provide timely insights for stakeholders seeking to implement policies that enhance active travel by addressing gender-specific needs. We found that factors influencing mobility and the use of non-motorized transport, such as safety, travel time, availability of pedestrian facilities, and travel risks like accidents, differ by gender. These variations significantly impact the adoption of active mobility. Hence, any sustainable mobility approach needs to retain women’s current habits of walking, through making the mode more attractive and safer. For instance, understanding the impact of significant variables such as availability of pedestrian facilities (sidewalks, cycle paths among others), provision of a good public transport system which gives priority to women can better influence the utilization and adoption of active travel. Moreso, women often gives consideration to walking distance against their male counterparts because most women often make trips with children and earn lower than the men which may not give them the luxury of owning or utilizing private vehicles.

Therefore, it is crucial for Governments and stakeholders must consider gender differences in travel behavior when shaping policies. This includes promoting green spaces with rest points, cycle paths, and shade for active mobility users to rest and socialize. Additionally, enforcing safety measures like mandatory helmet use for cyclists is essential to reduce fatalities from accidents during active mobility.

This study is limited to gender variation in the use of active mobility within a developing country context, characterized by distinct socio-economic factors and limited investment in active infrastructure compared to developed countries. Future research could include additional variables, such as socio-psychological factors like feelings of prestige, influencing active mobility use. Comparative studies examining disparities in active travel between developed and developing nations are also recommended. Future research should also consider non-internet users who may be active mobility users, as our study relied on google forms which can only be addressed by internet users. Additionally, this study did not address the specific gender issues which can encourage the promotion of active mobility such as provision of bike as a prize or gift to women to support and encourage cycling activities, hence future studies could look into this as a way of promoting the use of active mobility among women.