Walking, a fundamental human activity, offers immense benefits to public health and urban sustainability (Liu et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2022). As a mode of transportation, walking reduces air pollution, mitigates traffic congestion, and fosters physical and mental wellbeing (Garg and Sharma, 2022; Grant, et al., 2017; Bryan and Katzmarzyk, 2009). It is particularly critical in urban areas, where promoting walkability is essential to achieve sustainable urban development. First-mile walking (FMW), which encompasses the initial segment of any journey typically originating from home, plays a significant role in enabling active transportation and recreational activities. In literature, FMW is commonly classified into two categories: utilitarian and recreational walking. First-mile utilitarian walking involves purposeful trips from home to specific destinations, such as workplaces, schools, or public transport hubs (Watson et al., 2021; Fonseca et al., 2021). In contrast, first-mile recreational walking encompasses activities undertaken for leisure, health, or relaxation (Hekler et al., 2012; D’Hooghe et al., 2022).

The theoretical foundation of FMW is rooted in fields of transportation studies, urban planning, and public health. FMW has its origins in transportation research, where it is recognised as a crucial element in promoting non-motorised travel and improving access to public transport systems in urban areas (Kåresdotter et al., 2022). In urban planning, FMW is grounded in the compact city and garden city models, which advocate for high-density, mixed-use developments where urban facilities and amenities are designed to be accessible within a short walking distance from home (Ha et al., 2023). In public health, FMW is widely recognised as a key component of active travel, offering numerous health benefits. For example, studies have shown that FMW can lead to a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular diseases, obesity, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes (Omura et al., 2019; Oja et al., 2018). FMW is also associated with higher overall physical activity, which is crucial for maintaining a healthy weight and reducing chronic disease risk (Laeremans et al., 2017). Furthermore, the World Health Organization recommends that adults engage in at least 150 min of moderate-intensity aerobic activity per week, a goal that can be effectively supported through FMW (WHO, 2020). Additionally, FMW is recognised in the World Health Organization’s Global Action Plan for Physical Activity as a key strategy for promoting physical activity and enhancing mental wellbeing (WHO, 2018). In other words, investing in FMW is one of the most effective strategies for promoting physical activity and a healthy lifestyle among urban populations.

The significance of FMW has grown in recent years, particularly since the COVID-19 pandemic, which reinforced the importance of local mobility and walkable neighbourhoods (Abusaada and Elshater, 2024). As social distancing measures and reduced motorised travel became the norm, walking emerged as a vital and safe activity near homes. This shift in mobility patterns created an opportunity to integrate first-mile walking into urban planning, notably through the ‘15-minute city’ model (Tan et al., 2024; Wolański, 2023). This model emphasises the development of neighbourhoods where residents can conveniently access essential services—such as parks, schools, and workplaces—within a short walking distance. This model underscored the necessity of reimagining urban design to prioritise pedestrian-friendly environments, highlighting FMW as a fundamental component of sustainable, health-promoting cities (Rojas-Rueda and Morales-Zamora, 2021).

In both urban planning and public health literature, one of the important determinants of FMW is the neighbourhood walkability. Extensive research in Western countries has established that neighbourhood walkability characteristics play a crucial role in promoting FMW (Melnikov et al., 2022; Bedra et al., 2023; Tarek et al., 2021). Studies have consistently shown that people exposed to neighbourhood walkability factors such as pedestrian infrastructure, street connectivity, and access to green spaces, significantly influences FMW (Stefanidis and Bartzokas-Tsiompras, 2024; Elfituri and Hassan, 2021; Hussein, 2018). Moreover, walkable neighbourhood environments have been linked to increased physical activity levels and improved mental health outcomes among urban residents (Xu et al., 2024; Arifwidodo, and Chandrasiri, 2024). This growing body of evidence has led many cities to prioritise neighbourhood-level interventions for promoting walking as an urban planning and public health strategy.

However, the relationship between walkable neighbourhood environments and first-mile walking is more complex in cities like Bangkok. Previous studies identify four primary factors that make walking in Bangkok particularly challenging (Arifwidodo et al., 2021; Arifwidodo et al., 2019). First, the city’s tropical climate presents significant challenges, including extreme heat and seasonal rainfall, which discourage outdoor activities and necessitate the creation of shaded and weather-resistant pathways. Second, its diverse urban fabric, characterised by mixed-use development, unplanned settlements, and high-rise apartments alongside planned housing projects in the outskirts, creates fragmented walking networks that often lack connectivity. Third, informal street markets and motorised traffic frequently dominate pedestrian spaces, further complicating efforts to establish walkable neighbourhoods. Fourth, the cultural and social norms favour car usage, as cars are often seen as symbols of status and convenience. This preference is reinforced by urban planning decisions prioritising road expansion and vehicle infrastructure over pedestrian pathways. Additionally, the lack of incentives for walking and the dominance of motorised traffic contribute to an environment where walking is perceived as impractical or unsafe. As a result, FMW in Bangkok predominantly occurs within residential complexes such as apartments, condominiums, and gated housing estates. These environments offer better-designed amenities that support walking, in contrast to many public spaces that lack pedestrian-friendly infrastructure (Arifwidodo and Chandrasiri, 2023).

Bangkok encountered two significant challenges in promoting FMW. The first challenge is an infrastructure and policy misalignment, as the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) has historically prioritised pedestrian infrastructure in tourist areas, recognising its importance for economic development, resulting in inadequate provisions for first-mile walking in residential neighbourhoods. This approach fails to address the daily mobility needs of residents, restricting opportunities for regular physical activity and active lifestyle. The second is a knowledge gap in understanding how Bangkok’s unique urban context affects FMW. While extensive research has been conducted on FMW and neighbourhood walkability in United States and European cities, there is limited empirical evidence on how these relationships manifest in Bangkok. Specifically, the impact of walkability factors on first-mile utilitarian and recreational walking in Bangkok remains poorly understood.

To address these gaps, this study examines the relationship between first-mile walking, neighbourhood walkability, and physical activity by answering two key research questions: (1) To what extent is the neighbourhood walkability associated with first-mile utilitarian and recreational walking in Bangkok’s urban context? And (2) Does engaging in first-mile utilitarian and recreational walking in the neighbourhood correlate with achieving sufficient physical activity among Bangkok residents? This study employed a cross-sectional survey design with 881 residents from 50 districts in Bangkok, using the Neighbourhood Environment Walkability Scale-Abbreviated (NEWS-A) to assess walkability and the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) to measure physical activity levels. The analysis used multivariable logistic regression models to examine the relationships between neighbourhood environment, first-mile walking, and physical activity.

Two contributions of the study were identified. First, it enriched the understanding of the link between FMW, neighbourhood walkability, and physical activity in Bangkok, contributing to the broader literature on FMW and neighbourhood walkability in rapidly developing cities facing similar challenges. Second, it provided practical recommendations to the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) to inform policies and interventions aimed at promoting walkable neighbourhood environments in Bangkok.

Table 1 summarises the characteristics of the respondents. The distribution of monthly income among participants varied, with 44.8% earning between 10,001 and 30,000 THB, and only 10.6% earning more than 50,000 THB. In terms of educational attainment, 43.9% had more than a bachelor’s degree, while 12% had a high school education or less. The sex distribution was relatively balanced, with 53.2% female and 46.8% male participants. Most of the participants (76.7%) lived with their partners. In terms of health behaviours, a significant majority did not regularly consume alcohol (86.7%) or smoke (88.9%), and 88.8% reported not having non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Walkability scores, measured using the Neighbourhood Environment Walkability Scale-Abbreviated (NEWS-A), revealed that only 27.7% of neighbourhoods were considered highly walkable. With regards to neighbourhood type, 44.3% of participants resided in planned neighbourhoods, 41.9% in unplanned neighbourhoods, and 13.8% in high-rise neighbourhoods. Physical activity levels were generally high, with 78.7% of the participants engaging in sufficient physical activity (≥150 min/week). First-mile walking patterns differed substantially between utilitarian and recreational purposes, with 11.4% of participants engaging in utilitarian walking while a larger proportion (42.2%) participated in recreational walking during the study period.

Table 2 presents the results of multivariable logistic regression analyses examining associations between neighbourhood environment variables and both utilitarian and recreational walking. For utilitarian walking, two key environmental factors showed significant associations: high neighbourhood walkability (OR = 1.991, 95% CI = 1.2653–3.134) and residence in high-rise neighbourhoods (OR = 1.328, 95% CI = 1.1484–2.163) compared to unplanned neighbourhoods. For recreational walking, the analysis revealed broader significant associations: high neighbourhood walkability showed a stronger relationship (OR = 2.945, 95% CI = 2.1308–4.07), while both planned neighbourhoods (OR = 2.083, 95% CI = 1.479–2.881) and high-rise neighbourhoods (OR = 1.884, 95% CI = 1.2047–2.95) were significantly associated with increased recreational walking compared to unplanned neighbourhoods. Among health behaviour variables, non-alcohol consumption (non-smoking and absence of NCDs were not associated with either utilitarian or recreational walking. Notably, sociodemographic variables showed no significant associations with either type of walking, and type of zoning location (inner, outer, or fringe Bangkok) did not demonstrate significant association with first-mile walking.

Table 3 presents the results of multivariable logistic regression analysis examining the associations between first-mile walking behaviours and achieving sufficient physical activity levels, while controlling for neighbourhood environment variables. The analysis revealed strong associations between both types of walking and physical activity. First-mile utilitarian walking showed the strongest relationship with sufficient physical activity (OR = 6.292, 95% CI = 3.769–10.503), while recreational walking also demonstrated a significant positive association (OR = 2.394, 95% CI = 1.584–3.617). Among neighbourhood environment variables, high walkability remained significantly associated with sufficient physical activity (OR = 1.8835, 95% CI = 1.233–2.876), while neighbourhood type (planned or high-rise compared to unplanned) and type of zoning location showed no significant associations after adjusting for FMW and other covariates. These results suggest that engaging in FMW, particularly utilitarian walking, is strongly linked to achieving recommended physical activity levels, independent of neighbourhood environmental characteristics.

This study explored the relationship between first-mile walking (FMW), neighbourhood walkability, and physical activity in Bangkok, Thailand. Two primary findings emerged from the analysis, corresponding to the study’s research questions. The first key finding was that neighbourhood environmental factors significantly influenced both first-mile utilitarian and recreational walking, albeit in different ways. Neighbourhood walkability, as assessed using the NEWS-A, was strongly associated with both types of first-mile walking. This finding is consistent with research from Western urban contexts despite Bangkok’s unique climate and urban characteristics. Previous studies have suggested that first-mile walking is predominantly influenced by immediate neighbourhood attributes, which may mitigate the impact of weather conditions on walking behaviours (Yuri et al., 2023; Chan et al., 2021). Infrastructure such as sidewalks, pedestrian-friendly amenities, and safe connections to public transport hubs, schools, and parks are critical in shaping first-mile walking behaviour. The strong association between NEWS-A walkability scores and first-mile utilitarian and recreational walking suggests that well-designed neighbourhood environments can effectively promote walking behaviour regardless of the urban context (Cerin et al., 2009; Buehler and Fuchler, 2023). However, the applicability of NEWS-A to Bangkok warrants further discussion, given the city’s unique cultural and environmental characteristics. The relationship between neighbourhood walkability and first-mile walking remained strong even in Bangkok’s urban environment, characterized by high density, varied urban forms, prominence of informal markets and the reliance on motorised transport. This resilience of the walkability-first-mile walking relationship across different urban contexts supports arguments for investing in neighbourhood-level walking infrastructure while highlighting the importance of developing context-specific urban design approaches tailored to Bangkok’s unique needs.

The type of neighbourhood variable was also a significant determinant of both types of first-mile walking, revealing notable variations among high-rise, planned, and unplanned neighbourhoods. Residents of high-rise neighbourhoods, commonly comprising apartments and condominiums, were significantly more likely to engage in first-mile utilitarian walking. This trend can be attributed to the strategic placement of high-rise developments near public transit stations and their improved accessibility to green spaces, in line with transit-oriented development principles that have been shown to encourage active mobility globally (Gaxiola-Beltrán et al., 2021; Pereira et al., 2021). However, planned neighbourhood developments do not exhibit a significant association with first-mile recreational walking. This may be attributed to their typical location in urban fringe areas, where key destinations such as workplaces, schools, markets, and hospitals are farther away. Similar patterns have been observed in other large metropolitan areas (Cambra and Filipe, 2020; Zhu et al., 2023).

On the other hand, both high-rise and planned neighbourhoods were significantly associated with first-mile recreational walking. These findings are consistent with existing literature. Research indicates that planned and high-rise neighbourhoods are typically designed to provide greater access to green spaces, interconnected pedestrian pathways, and recreational facilities within residential complexes, fostering an environment supporting FMW (Song et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2022). Their compact design enhances safety and security and fosters a sense of community, making them especially conducive to first-mile recreational walking, particularly for children, older adults and women (Gao et al., 2022; Herbolsheimer et al., 2020; Adlakha and Parra, 2020).

Interestingly, the type of zones (inner, outer, or fringe) did not significantly impact first-mile utilitarian and recreational walking, which contrasts with findings from the United States and Europe, where mixed-use land use is typically associated with higher walking rates (Chriqui et al., 2016; McCormack et al., 2023a; McCormack et al., 2023b; Freeman et al., 2012). This finding can be attributed to several interconnected factors. First, Bangkok’s distinctive urban morphology differs fundamentally from Western cities’ rigid land-use segregation. Mixed-use development permeates all urban zones in Bangkok, particularly in unplanned neighbourhoods distributed throughout the city. This characteristic creates a more homogeneous distribution of walking opportunities across inner, outer, and fringe zones, potentially diminishing the effect of broad zoning classifications on first-mile walking. Second, our analysis suggests that micro-level environmental characteristics exert stronger influences on FMW patterns than macro-scale zoning designations. The significant associations found with the NEWS-A walkability measure support this interpretation, indicating that features such as sidewalk availability, perceived safety, and pedestrian-friendly infrastructure may be more decisive determinants of FMW than broader urban planning zoning classifications. Third, methodological considerations may also contribute to this finding. While our study encompassed 881 participants across 50 districts, the stratification of this sample across three urban zones may have limited statistical power to detect significant differences in first-mile utilitarian and recreational walking. Although the study achieved broad geographic coverage, the relatively smaller subgroup sizes within each zone could have masked subtle variations in first-mile walking patterns. Future research employing larger, more strategically stratified samples could better elucidate potential relationships between urban zoning and first-mile walking.

Additionally, sociodemographic characteristics did not exhibit significant associations with first-mile walking, diverging from prior studies that have linked socioeconomic status to walking behaviour (Kim and Woo, 2016; Villanueva et al., 2014; Ghimire and Bardaka, 2023). A plausible explanation for this discrepancy is that neighbourhood attributes exert a stronger influence on walking patterns in Bangkok than individual socioeconomic factors. Moreover, cultural attitudes towards walking in Bangkok may differ from those observed in Western contexts, underscoring the need for context-specific considerations in first-mile walking research.

The second key finding was that engaging in first-mile utilitarian and recreational walking was positively associated with achieving sufficient physical activity levels. This result aligns with previous studies that have identified walking as a primary mode of work-related and leisure physical activity, contributing to public health goals (Howell et al., 2017; Kang et al., 2017; Karolemeas et al., 2023). Even during the COVID-19 pandemic, while utilitarian walking declined due to movement restrictions, recreational walking increased, exceeding pre-pandemic levels (Arifwidodo and Chandrasiri, 2023; Topothai et al., 2023). These findings reinforce the argument that promoting first-mile walking—both for transportation and leisure—serves as an effective public health strategy to enhance physical activity among urban populations. In addition to that, the association between neighbourhood walkability and sufficient physical activity highlights the importance of neighbourhood design that integrates both walking infrastructure and accessible recreational amenities, such as green spaces, to support active lifestyles. Previous studies have reported similar findings (Chandrasiri and Arifwidodo, 2017; Prins et al., 2019). Furthermore, during the COVID-19 pandemic, neighbourhood walkability was identified as a critical determinant of maintaining physical activity levels in Bangkok (Arifwidodo and Chandrasiri, 2024). Enhancing neighbourhood walkability through infrastructure improvements—such as maintaining sidewalks and increasing access to recreational spaces—can substantially encourage first-mile walking and contribute to higher physical activity levels (Arifwidodo et al., 2022; Molina-Garciá et al., 2019; Clarke et al., 2019).

This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. Given its cross-sectional design, it cannot establish causal relationships between neighbourhood environments, first-mile walking, and physical activity. This highlights the need for caution when interpreting causal inferences and underscores the importance of longitudinal studies to examine temporal relationships and causality. Furthermore, the sample size of 881 respondents, while adequate within the constraints of a PhD research project, may limit the generalisability of findings. Future studies with larger samples could provide a more comprehensive understanding of first-mile walking across Bangkok’s diverse urban landscape.

Additionally, the binary classification of recreational walking (yes/no) oversimplifies first-mile walking behaviour by not capturing its frequency, duration, or intensity. Future research should employ more nuanced measurement approaches to offer a detailed analysis of walking patterns. While the NEWS-A is a validated tool for assessing neighbourhood walkability, its applicability within Bangkok’s unique socio-cultural and environmental context warrants further investigation. Local cultural norms, socio-economic diversity, and environmental conditions may influence walkability perceptions and impact the interpretation of scores. Moreover, while the NEWS-A has been effective in evaluating first-mile walking, its relevance to last-mile or trip-chained walking is less clear. Future research should assess whether this tool sufficiently captures walkability factors related to different types of walking in Bangkok’s distinct urban setting.

The impact of Bangkok’s seasonal hot and humid climate on FMW cannot be fully captured due to the cross-sectional nature of this study. Our survey was conducted during December–January, when temperatures and humidity levels are lower compared to the peak hot season (April–November). As a result, FMW activity observed in this study may reflect an upper bound, as FMW rates are likely to be lower during the hotter months when thermal discomfort is more pronounced. Additionally, while shading infrastructure, such as tree canopy and covered walkways, can help mitigate heat exposure, most pedestrian infrastructure in Bangkok lacks covered walkways. These covered walkways are primarily found in select tourist areas, while residential neighbourhoods in Bangkok have limited shading and shelter from rain. This lack of protective infrastructure exacerbates the challenge of FMW in extreme weather conditions and may discourage walking outside of the cooler months. This underscores the need for future research using longitudinal or seasonal studies to better understand how climate and urban design interact to influence FMW throughout the year. Additionally, the study’s focus on adults limits its inclusivity. Expanding research to encompass diverse population groups, including children, older adults, and individuals with disabilities, would enhance the applicability and relevance of the findings. This inclusivity is essential for designing universally accessible walking environments.

Further research should also investigate specific neighbourhood design elements that encourage recreational walking in Bangkok, such as the availability and quality of pedestrian pathways and urban green spaces. Understanding these elements in greater detail could inform the development of targeted urban design guidelines. Moreover, the economic implications of investing in walkable neighbourhoods warrant further exploration. This includes assessing the cost-effectiveness and long-term public health benefits of such designs, particularly in relation to reduced healthcare costs due to increased physical activity and improved mental wellbeing. Additionally, studies should examine the economic viability of walkable urban environments by evaluating potential increases in property values, tourism, and local business activities. These insights would provide policymakers with robust evidence to support investment in pedestrian-friendly infrastructure as a means of promoting urban health.

Comparative studies with other major Asian cities could also offer valuable regional insights and inform urban planning strategies to encourage walking. Furthermore, the role of technology—such as smartphones and fitness trackers—in influencing walking behaviour was not considered in this study. Future research should explore how technological tools may encourage recreational walking and enhance data collection. Finally, a deeper investigation into Bangkok’s social norms and cultural factors would provide additional context to the findings, facilitating a more nuanced understanding of walking behaviour in this setting.

Despite these limitations, this study enhances the understanding of first-mile walking, neighbourhood walkability, and physical activity in Bangkok. Its findings underscore the importance of micro-level neighbourhood design features in facilitating first-mile utilitarian and recreational walking. These findings provide valuable insights for urban planners and policymakers, indicating that targeted, neighbourhood-level interventions may be more effective in encouraging walking than broad city-wide zoning policies. The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration should prioritise walking policies by enhancing first-mile infrastructure near residential areas. Key policy measures to strengthen first-mile utilitarian walking should include well-maintained sidewalks, pedestrian-friendly amenities, and safe connections to public transport, schools, and parks to significantly encourage first-mile walking. Key policy measures to strengthen first-mile recreational walking should focus on establishing networks of green spaces in residential areas, particularly in high-density zones, to ensure equitable access to recreational spaces. Expanding green spaces and shaded pathways would increase accessibility and mitigate the effects of Bangkok’s tropical climate on walking.

Furthermore, introducing traffic-calming measures in high-density neighbourhoods could enhance pedestrian safety. Strengthening connectivity between green spaces via well-maintained pedestrian pathways would further promote recreational walking. Policymakers should also explore repurposing underutilised urban spaces into community parks or recreational hubs to foster social cohesion while improving walkability. These tailored interventions, adapted to Bangkok’s specific urban context, can potentially create walkable, health-promoting neighbourhoods.

This study examined the relationships between first-mile walking, neighbourhood walkability, and physical activity in Bangkok, Thailand. Our findings validate and extend existing theoretical frameworks across transportation studies, urban planning, and public health domains. From an active transportation perspective, our results demonstrate that neighbourhood-level infrastructure influences first-mile walking behaviour even in challenging urban environments. In urban planning theory, our findings challenge conventional city-wide approaches by showing that micro-level neighbourhood characteristics have greater impact on first-mile walking behaviour than macro-level interventions. From a public health standpoint, the strong correlation between first-mile walking and sufficient physical activity levels supports WHO’s framework for physical activity promotion in rapidly urbanizing contexts. Several important limitations warrant consideration. The cross-sectional design limits causal inference, while the binary classification of walking behaviour oversimplifies complex walking patterns. Additionally, the application of NEWS-A in Bangkok’s unique socio-cultural context requires further validation. Future research should employ longitudinal designs with more nuanced walking measurements and explore seasonal variations in walking behaviour, specific design elements that encourage walking in high-density Asian cities, and the economic implications of walkable neighbourhoods. Our findings suggest that targeted, neighbourhood-level interventions may be more effective than broad city-wide policies in promoting walking and physical activity, particularly in rapidly developing cities. These interventions should address both utilitarian needs through enhanced connectivity to public transport and essential services, and recreational opportunities through accessible green spaces and pedestrian-friendly zones. The integration of transportation, urban planning, and public health perspectives remains crucial for developing effective strategies to promote active, healthy urban communities.