In the 21 s t century, technological advancements have resulted in a resurgence, marking the onset of the 4 t h industrial revolution. Emerging concepts such as quantum manufacturing, neuromorphic computing, digital twins powered by AI, biohybrid robotics, autonomous supply chains, edge AI integration, swarm robotics, and programmable matter are beginning to influence the next wave of production innovations. Building on established predictive maintenance, new trends now focus on autonomous and AI driven maintenance systems that go beyond fault prediction to enable real time decision making and adaptive repairs. Leveraging these technologies enables streamlined production processes and cost optimization. It is crucial to recognize that the fourth industrial revolution has impacted all aspects of manufacturing enterprises, including manufacturing, logistics, management, and marketing Popkova et al. (2019). Human involvement in production processes can be supplanted by intelligent devices that communicate autonomously. To thrive in today’s landscape, automotive companies must harness a spectrum of advanced technologies. These transformative technologies, collectively known as CASE (connectivity, autonomy, shared mobility, and electrification), are transforming the global automotive sector Dutt et al. (2020).

The automotive industry faces multifaceted challenges that span design, manufacturing, promotion, sales, insurance, and the historical documentation of automobiles and their components throughout their life cycle. To maintain a competitive edge, the automotive sector must continuously evolve by integrating advanced technologies such as robotics, artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), and machine learning (ML). These technologies, now widely adopted across the industry, are reshaping how vehicles are designed, manufactured, and operated. Blockchain, meanwhile, has emerged as a transformative force, addressing longstanding challenges such as assembly line delays, just in time delivery, ownership verification, and counterfeit prevention. It offers a secure and transparent platform for collecting, storing, managing, and leveraging automotive data throughout the vehicle lifecycle. Furthermore, the convergence of AI, ML, and blockchain represents a synergistic approach that enhances automation, decision making, and data integrity. In modern vehicles, AI improves user experience, safety, and operational intelligence, paving the way toward fully connected and autonomous transportation systems.

The fundamental structure of the blockchain is based on data blocks and facilitates the recording of distributed transactions with efficiency, verifiability, and permanence. Consequently, this reduces the complexity of the process and associated costs by eliminating intermediaries. Users of blockchain enabled applications can access comprehensive vehicle histories, assured of their authenticity and integrity Moosavi et al. (2021).

In the aftermath of the Cold War, military strategists sought new ways to describe the unpredictable and rapidly changing global landscape. This led to the emergence of the acronym VUCA, which stands for Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity, and Ambiguity. Originally coined by the U.S. Army War College, the concept has since gained prominence across disciplines to frame the challenges faced in dynamic and unstable environments. In organizational and technological contexts, VUCA highlights the need for adaptive, resilient and forward looking strategies to navigate uncertainty and interconnected risks. Horney et al. (2010).

Seizing opportunities requires a thorough understanding of them; however, a review of the actions and statements of organizational leaders reveals a notable lack of understanding. Three primary issues arise from how few terms are employed by organizational leaders. Firstly, they tend to be used casually, with VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity, ambiguity) often reduced to a mere synonym for “unpredictable change” Johansen and Euchner (2013). A cursory web search of the individual components of VUCA typically reveals that they are frequently employed together as industry buzz in executive discussions, consultant blogs, and business publications, often treated interchangeably. Although these terms share related meanings, their nuances are crucial for leaders to grasp. Indiscriminate use of the VUCA acronym can lead to potentially hazardous consequences, as it overlooks the distinct meanings of its four components, which could otherwise offer valuable insights to leaders.

Secondly, even when individuals acknowledge the distinctions in meaning, there is a notable absence of guidance on how to effectively address each of these conditions. Although executives may recognize the challenges of operating in a VUCA realm in interviews and press releases, they often fail to delve into specifics on how firms can navigate such an environment. Those who do address the issue typically offer overly simplistic solutions that apply broadly across all four components, such as “innovate”, “be creative”, “remain flexible” or “listen more”. History shows that such generic advice rarely produces exceptional leaders, meaningful change, or resilient organizations. Ultimately, a notable number of organizational leaders, perhaps due to the lack of available practical guidance and lack of technological knowledge, are responding to the challenges of the VUCA world by adopting a traditional attitude Meyers and Bull (2002). An emerging narrative of organizational leadership of thought suggests that traditional concepts such as strategy and marketing are considered obsolete and defunct in the face of perceived chaos and uncontrollability inherent in the VUCA realm. The challenges faced by the automotive industry and its stakeholders in the VUCA realm along with possible solutions are explained in Table 1.

VUCA dynamics also significantly impact higher education, particularly in preparing students for the challenges of volatile and complex environments Green et al. (2019). In the context of design and engineering education, these dynamics requires fostering adaptability, critical thinking, and interdisciplinary collaboration among design and engineering students. Moreover, the development of innovative educational frameworks equip future engineers with the competencies required to address rapidly evolving problem spaces. Engineering education must evolve to ensure that graduates are equipped with the resilience and adaptability necessary for success Rouvrais et al. (2023). Integration of VUCA and resilience training across various levels of the engineering curriculum, from freshman courses to professional engineering programs. By exploring and comparing existing teaching and learning activities, key insights emerge about the importance of a progressive approach in embedding such critical skills.

The automobile industry stands as a prime example of a VUCA environment due to its exposure to rapidly shifting technologies, global supply chain disruptions, and evolving regulatory frameworks. The sector faces volatility through unpredictable demand shifts and raw material price fluctuations, uncertainty from emerging electric and autonomous vehicle technologies, complexity arising from the integration of IoT devices, cloud platforms, and software defined vehicles, and ambiguity in navigating inconsistent global emissions and data privacy regulations Company (2020); Johansen and Euchner (2013); Johansen (2012). These interconnected challenges justify the application of the VUCA lens and call for resilient, transparent, and adaptive systems. As such, the integration of blockchain and decentralized storage frameworks offers promising pathways to address these multifaceted disruptions, particularly in enabling traceability, compliance, and stakeholder trust across the vehicle lifecycle.

In addressing the challenges posed by the VUCA realm in automobile industry, our proposed solution involves adaptation of a blockchain framework to mitigate vulnerabilities and overheads throughout the life cycle of an automobile. These vulnerabilities and overheads manifest themselves at various stages, beginning with the initial conceptualization of a new automobile variant, which may entail complexities in design. Subsequent stages, including manufacturing and assembly, are susceptible to issues related to the supply chain of parts and raw materials. Ensuring the quality and functionality of the finalized product through rigorous testing is imperative. Furthermore, meeting market demands and ensuring to meet the customer needs, keeping up with the advanced trends and technologies and timely availability to customers pose additional challenges. Post sales processes, such as insurance claim processing and maintenance further add to the complexity. Additionally, communication within smart cities and eventual recycling at the end of the automobile’s life cycle are integral considerations. Using blockchain technology in all stages, our objective is to improve efficiency, transparency, and resilience within the automotive industry, ultimately contributing to mitigate challenges in the VUCA realm.

To cope with all those issues and problems that we acronymize as VUCA in the automobile industry, a huge amount of data is also generated in the complete life cycle of an automobile resulting in the endless requirement of storage. This data generation is periodic and frequent and contains text files, images, and videos of various aspects of the automobile life cycle. Several file systems are already implemented across various networks in the world, among these, the Private InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) best suits our infrastructure requirements.

To address the challenges posed by the VUCA realm in the automotive industry, we propose using the Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) consensus mechanism, integrated with an overlay IPFS network. This framework ensures that stakeholder requirements are continuously prioritized and revisited throughout the vehicle’s lifecycle. Moreover, to understand system behavior, we use sequence diagrams to provide more clarity on our system. Once the vehicle enters the post production phase, this system continues to support ongoing adaptation, enabling real time updates and modifications based on immutable blockchain records. This seamless integration not only ensures stakeholder satisfaction but also enhances market competitiveness through efficient, data driven decision making by stakeholders.

Our review of the literature identified a significant research gap while many articles focus on specific genres of the auto industry, none comprehensively describe the overall life cycle of automobiles integrating blockchain and IPFS. This paper aims to fill this gap by presenting a new framework that encompasses all aspects of an automobile’s life cycle and involves all stakeholders. Furthermore, we have analyzed the VUCA realm as a challenging environment that affects automobiles and their stakeholders, as detailed in Table 1. The existing literature from various researchers in the VUCA realm fails to adequately address the challenges, opportunities, and emerging trends in the automotive life cycle. Our paper seeks to address these gaps and contribute to the existing knowledge base in this field.

This section reviews the related works on AVs/EVs, the VUCA realm, the Blockchain consensus mechanism DPoS, the auto industry (especially manufacturing, logistics and supply chain), and file systems (particularly Private IPFS).

Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) has emerged as a crucial component in blockchain and IoT security. ECC offers advantages over RSA in terms of smaller key sizes and faster computations, making it more suitable for resource constrained environments Yadav (2021); Chandel et al. (2020). When combined with blockchain technology, ECC enhances data security in cloud storage by providing resistance to man in the middle and replay attacks Benmenzer and Beghdad (2022). The integration of ECC in blockchain applications extends to various fields, including IoT, cloud computing, and image security Vijay Nikhil et al. (2024). ECC’s efficiency in transaction size and speed makes it particularly valuable for blockchain implementations, where these factors are essential for optimal performance Chandel et al. (2020). As blockchain technology continues to evolve, ECC plays a vital role in ensuring data integrity, confidentiality, and privacy across decentralized systems Yadav (2021); Benmenzer and Beghdad (2022).

Numerous studies have explored the application of blockchain technology in the realm of autonomous vehicles (AV). Initially, a straightforward approach involved the storage of data parameters representing the current state, sourced either directly from the vehicle’s operating system or neighboring vehicles Narbayeva et al. (2020). Subsequently, researchers have addressed the challenge of determining liability in unforeseen events, particularly accidents, given the complete autonomy of control. In Oham et al. (2018), an encompassing framework is proposed to navigate this issue, offering potential solutions for stakeholders including car owners, insurance companies, and automotive manufacturers. Furthermore, forensic data storage emerges as a focal point, as demonstrated in Guo et al. (2020), where the feasibility of such a system is demonstrated using the Hyperledger Fabric network.

The security vulnerabilities inherent in AVs have garnered significant attention in various studies, underscoring the importance of protecting these vehicles against potential threats. Researchers are increasingly exploring the potential of blockchain technology to address a range of security challenges, including denial of service attacks, GPS spoofing, timing manipulation, and man in the middle attacks Gupta et al. (2021). The field of blockchain security and privacy is rapidly evolving, with a focus on enhancing data control, traceability, accountability, fault tolerance, and scalability Gupta et al. (2020). Refueling infrastructure is also poised for transformation, particularly in light of the European Union’s mandate for all new vehicles, including future autonomous vehicles (AVs), to be electric within a few decades. Consequently, efforts are underway to improve electric refueling processes, leveraging Ethereum Virtual Machine based smart contracts to streamline this activity Pedrosa and Pau (2018). Furthermore, blockchain technology holds promise for improving the resilience of firmware update mechanisms Baza et al. (2019b).

Another area of interest lies in the management of AV traffic, where blockchain enabled smart contracts could facilitate dynamic congestion management in urban environments, allowing vehicles to autonomously adjust speeds based on a fee based algorithm. Currently, electric vehicles (EVs) are garnering significant attention due to advances in battery technology and emissions reduction. However, challenges persist in their widespread adoption, especially in the domain of charging infrastructure Florea and Taralunga (2020). The limited availability of charging stations poses obstacles for both home and public charging facilities, necessitating drivers to seek out charging facilities, contributing to range anxiety Pevec et al. (2019). Blockchain based solutions offer promising avenues to address these challenges by enabling drivers to share private charging resources, as exemplified in Fu et al. (2021), which introduces a peer to peer (P2P) framework for private charging pile sharing systems. Furthermore, Okwuibe et al. (2020) proposes a smart charging system leveraging blockchain to alleviate load congestion on the electric power grid. In addition to improving the charging infrastructure, blockchain technology facilitates real time payments with cryptocurrencies and increases security Foti and Vavalis (2021), as evidenced in Lasla et al. (2020), which explores how blockchain incentivizes EV users to share energy surplus, thus improving clean energy availability and alleviating range anxiety. Additionally, technology offers opportunities for enhancing energy trading security, online EV monitoring, charging infrastructure management, and fostering the concept of the Internet of EVs, while promoting shared energy resources.

The forthcoming generation of vehicles demands novel production methodologies rooted in the integration of Industry 4.0 smart principles Jadoon et al. (2020); Gîrbacia et al. (2022). Smart manufacturing poses a challenge with its heightened interaction among manufacturing entities. Blockchain technology emerges as a solution to streamline vehicle manufacturing processes by improving the integration of shared systems and components managed by various entities. The blockchain ensures increased security, traceability, and immutability of shared data within smart manufacturing frameworks. This technology fosters a seamless exchange of information across various stakeholders, bolstering efficiency and transparency throughout the manufacturing life cycle. Thus, leveraging blockchain in smart manufacturing holds promise for optimizing the production of next-generation vehicles, paving the way for improved collaboration and innovation within the automotive industry.

The potential applications of blockchain in manufacturing services are diverse and promising. A notable example is Man4Ware, a middleware solution that uses blockchain features for smart manufacturing Mohamed and Al-Jaroodi (2019). By incorporating blockchain services, this platform enhances the security, traceability, and immutability of shared manufacturing data. Furthermore, Lee et al. (2020) introduces a blockchain based conceptual framework designed for smart manufacturing systems that use blockchain to facilitate the transmission of device data and manufacturing services. Quality assurance in manufacturing is bolstered through blockchain services, as demonstrated in Zhang et al. (2019), where transparent and secure data on material provenance and production equipment management are provided. Moreover, Shahbazi and Byun (2021) presents a platform that integrates IoT, ML, and blockchain technology to monitor manufacturing systems. Blockchain’s role in this context includes preventing the dissemination of fraudulent data and enhancing data transmission security, thereby optimizing costs and ensuring data integrity throughout the manufacturing process.

Recent research has focused on developing decentralized, privacy preserving ride sharing systems using blockchain technology. These systems aim to address issues associated with centralized services, such as single points of failure, privacy concerns, and vulnerability to attacks Baza et al. (2020); Badr et al. (2021); Mahmoud et al. (2024); Baza et al. (2019a). Proposed solutions incorporate various privacy preserving techniques, including spatial cloaking, encryption, and pseudonyms Baza et al. (2020); Badr et al. (2021); Mahmoud et al. (2024). To improve matching accuracy while maintaining privacy, some approaches use multiple overlapping grids or semantic matching models Badr et al. (2021); Mahmoud et al. (2024). Integration of blockchain with IPFS has been suggested to address scalability challenges Mahmoud et al. (2024). Additionally, smart contracts and time locked deposits have been proposed to ensure trust, fair payment, and commitment from users Baza et al. (2019a). These blockchain based systems aim to provide transparent, secure, and efficient ride sharing services without relying on centralized third parties.

Cloak is a privacy preserving query framework for blockchain systems that leverages the distributed and independent nature of blockchain ledgers to protect the privacy of client query requests Xiao et al. (2024). Cloak improves query performance by up to 4x compared to the state of the art Spiral and reduces storage overhead by 50% compared to Spiral. It decomposes client requests into multiple subrequests and sends them to independent full nodes, then aggregates the results to serve privacy preserving queries. Gai et al. Gai et al. (2022) propose a blockchain based digital twin solution to redesign supply chain management systems and improve their efficiency.

The automotive industry is poised for significant growth, with projections that estimate an annual expansion of 8 % − 10 % , underscoring its crucial role in national economies Gîrbacia et al. (2022). Consequently, automotive manufacturers are under increasing pressure to fortify their defenses against supply chain counterfeiting and enhance security measures against malicious attacks Oham et al. (2021). One potential solution to address counterfeiting threats involves leveraging permissioned blockchains, such as Hyperledger Sukhwani et al. (2018), which employs a distributed consensus algorithm. Through this approach, manufacturers can establish a transparent and secure framework for verifying the authenticity of components and tracking their journey through the supply chain. By adopting permissioned blockchains, automotive companies can strengthen the integrity of the supply chain, mitigate the risks associated with counterfeiting, and maintain stringent security standards in the face of evolving threats.

The automotive industry faces mounting pressure to innovate rapidly, delivering competitive, eco-friendly products at reasonable prices. Central to this challenge is the complexity inherent in supply chains and logistics Viriyasitavat et al. (2020). Emerging technologies such as blockchain, IoT, Big Data, and AI hold immense potential to revolutionize these aspects Pournader et al. (2020). For instance, the integration of tracking tools and blockchain, along with smart contracts, can automate payments to suppliers upon successful delivery of goods Viriyasitavat et al. (2020). By seamlessly integrating blockchain with other advanced technologies such as cloud computing, IoT, big data analytics, and cyber security, supply chain networks can achieve heightened trust, transparency, immutability, and reliability Kamble et al. (2023).

An efficient survey of various file systems is presented in Macko and Hennessey (2022), drawing the reader’s attention to different genres of file systems implemented worldwide. The survey discusses their advantages and disadvantages based on network type, latency, geography, and partition tolerance. In contrast, Shi et al. (2024) sheds light on the types of files stored in IPFS, their accessibility, and the content providers within the IPFS network. Moreover, Abdullah Lajam and Ahmed Helmy (2021) integrates the file system with the blockchain and evaluates the performance of the system.

Various studies have proposed blockchain based solutions to improve logistics and traceability. For instance, a blockchain based logistics monitoring system was developed and tested on Ethereum, primarily aimed at enabling parcel tracking Helo and Hao (2019). Similarly, TokenTrail, a decentralized blockchain application utilizing semi fungible ERC 1155 tokens, addresses traceability concerns Kuhn et al. (2021). Moreover, the use of smart contracts can establish hyperconnected logistics networks using blockchain and (Betti et al., 2019). Although blockchain technology holds promise for improving vehicle tracking and freight management, widespread deployment remains a prospect rather than a current reality. These studies collectively underscore the potential for blockchain to revolutionize the automotive industry, improving efficiency, transparency, and security.

The life cycle of an automobile involves a complex and interconnected series of stages, each vital to the production, distribution, utilization, and eventual disposal of an automobile. It all begins with meticulous design and planning at the automobile manufacturer, where teams of engineers, designers, and planners collaborate to conceptualize and develop new vehicle models. Once the design is finalized, the process moves to parts manufacturing, where specialized suppliers produce various components according to the manufacturer’s specifications. These components, ranging from engines to interiors, are then supplied to the assembly plant. Here, skilled workers meticulously assemble parts into complete vehicles on the assembly line, adhering to strict quality control standards to ensure safety and performance.

In all these processes, stakeholder’s requirements are prioritized and addressed at every stage. The automobile is designed and manufactured according to stakeholder’s satisfaction and needs. Even after the automobile passes the production stage and enters commercial or practical usage, there is still a need for adaptation. Changes are made accordingly in the upcoming automobiles on the assembly line. If an automobile is not adapted to meet evolving requirements, stakeholder’s satisfaction cannot be achieved. Moreover, in a competitive market, continual adaptation and improvement are necessary.

After assembly, automobiles are distributed to dealerships and distributors, who manage sales and marketing efforts to attract potential buyers. Upon purchase, ownership of the automobile is transferred to the customer. Auto owners then enter the stage of vehicle usage, where they rely on their automobiles for transportation needs. Throughout this stage, automobile manufacturers and maintenance workers play a crucial role in ensuring ongoing maintenance, repair, and upkeep of the vehicles, addressing wear and tear, and ensuring continued performance and safety on the road.

Finally, as an automobile reaches the end of its usable life, it undergoes the end of life stage. Here, they are recycled or disposed of in an environmentally responsible manner. Recycling centers play a key role in dismantling and recycling vehicle components, salvaging materials for reuse and minimizing environmental impact. Through these stages, from initial design and manufacturing to usage and eventual disposal, the life cycle of an automobile involves a coordinated effort between stakeholders to provide safe, reliable, and sustainable transportation solutions. The depiction of the life cycle of an automobile is illustrated in Figure 1.

Our proposed infrastructure utilizes the blockchain consensus mechanism, DPoS, chosen for its efficiency and suitability for systems with limited resources, along with the use of IPFS network. The life cycle management of an automobile within this framework begins with identifying the demand for a new vehicle. Then it moves through the design and planning phases, where detailed engineering and resource allocation occur. Following this, the production phase involves manufacturing the automobile according to the finalized designs. Once the vehicle is in use, it undergoes regular operation and maintenance to ensure optimal performance. Finally, at the end of its life cycle, the vehicle is responsibly disposed of or recycled. This structured approach ensures a comprehensive and sustainable management of the automobile from inception to end of life.

In the automotive industry, the landscape of VUCA poses significant challenges, including fluctuating market conditions, unpredictable risks, and complex decision making. Our framework addresses these issues by integrating automobiles into a blockchain network using DPoS for governance and Private IPFS for excessive data storage. DPoS streamlines in decision making by allowing stakeholders to delegate authority, enhancing transparency and accountability while Private IPFS stores the excessive amount of data generated in blockchain and makes it available when needed. This integration ensures increased transparency, vulnerability mitigation, and uncertainty reduction throughout the automobile life cycle, from production to post sales services. By facilitating real time tracking and verification, blockchain integration bolsters operational efficiency and resilience against VUCA related disruptions. In conclusion, our framework offers a robust solution to navigate the complexities of the VUCA realm in the automotive sector, empowering stakeholders to make informed decisions and optimize processes amid dynamic and uncertain environments.