Potato (Solanum tuberosum), belonging to the family Solanaceae, is a staple food and the world’s fourth most important crop after rice, wheat, and maize (Islam et al., 2017). Bangladesh ranks as the seventh largest potato-growing country globally and third-largest in Asia (Crops. FAOSTAT, 2018). Recent data indicate that Bangladesh is self-sufficient in potato production, yielding 9.87 million metric tons by cultivating 468.7 thousand hectares of land (BBS, 2023). Despite this impressive production, potato exports are significantly hindered due to their compromised quality, which results from various diseases (Mittler, 2006).

Potato is highly susceptible to various diseases caused by fungi, viruses, and bacteria, resulting in significant crop damage and yield loss (Islam et al., 2022). Farmers commonly use fungicides and insecticides to combat these infestations (Kromann et al., 2009). However, the extensive use of these chemicals raises serious food safety and environmental concerns, highlighting the need for alternative disease management strategies (Islam et al., 2018).

Plant breeders have worked relentlessly for centuries to develop improved crop varieties with enhanced disease resistance. Although most disease-resistant crops have been developed through conventional and molecular breeding approaches, these methods have limitations, for instance, limited genetic resources within the gene pool, cross-incompatibility, and prolonged development phases. Genetic engineering can overcome these barriers by allowing the integration of beneficial genes from any source into targeted crops, providing tolerance and resistance against both abiotic and biotic stresses in a shorter breeding time. Moreover, considering the adverse impacts of chemical treatments, the introduction of disease-resistant potato varieties through genetic engineering offers a feasible and environment-friendly alternative for disease control (Lozoya-Saldana, 2011). Experience from nearly 3 decades of commercial cultivation of various GE crops has demonstrated its benefits to the growers. Therefore, the adoption of GE crops is rising globally (Bhajan et al., 2022), particularly in developing countries like Bangladesh (James, 2017).

In 2013, Bangladesh became a biotech country by adopting Bt eggplant, a genetically modified variety developed by introducing the Cry1Ac gene from B. thuringiensis, which provides resistance against eggplant fruit and shoot borer (EFSB) (Shelton et al., 2018). In 2023, commercial cultivation of Bt cotton began, which was developed by inserting the same gene of the Cry family (Cry1AC) as Bt brinjal from Bacillus thuringiensis, conferring resistance to cotton bollworm (ISAAA, 2023; Sujan et al., 2024). Bangladesh has been engaged in research on GE potato since 2006, and to date, several confined field trials were conducted on late blight (LB) resistant potato developed by introgression of three LB resistance genes, Rpi-mcq1, Rpi-blb2, and Rpivnt1.1 (Potatopro, 2021; USDA, 2021).

However, the commercial cultivation of GE crops requires prior biosafety assessments to ensure environmental safety. According to the Guidelines for the Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) of Genetically Engineered (GE) Plants 2016, one key issue to consider is the comparison of cultivation practices between GE and non-GE natural counterparts. Agronomic performance and crop physiology also need to be evaluated during these assessments. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the common cultivation practices employed by Bangladeshi farmers for potato cultivation and to identify potential changes that may occur with the introduction of the GE potato.

Considering the above-mentioned issues, a foundational survey was conducted throughout the potato-growing season to collect information from both potato growers and seed potato producers. The study aimed to understand their approaches to fertilizer management and other agricultural practices during potato cultivation. To achieve this goal, several specific objectives were outlined, including i) Collecting baseline information on potato cultivation, ii) Gathering data on the use of macro and micronutrients in the form of manures and fertilizers in potato cultivation, and iii) Understanding the attitude of Bangladeshi potato growers toward GE potato.

The findings of the survey have been categorized and presented in several ways to demonstrate the current state of potato production as well as potential strategies of fertilizer management and agronomic practices for the introduction of GE potato in Bangladesh.

The statistical populations for this survey in the four regions were mostly regular farmers with more than 10 years of experience. Respondents (n = 1757) were grouped based on their gender, age, and educational qualifications, as reported by De Steur et al. (2019) (Table 1). To ensure the effectiveness of the study, a purposeful random sample technique was utilized to choose respondents from various regions. This approach aimed to determine fertilizer management procedures, cultural practices, and farmer attitudes toward genetically engineered (GE) potato, which was reflected through the 13 statements in Table 2. This methodology was supported by Areal et al. (2011), who summarized farmers’ attitudes toward genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops with 24 statements.

Though Bangladesh produces a huge amount of potato, the quality of potato has undergone several challenges due to biotic and abiotic stresses. In terms of the use of fertilizers, we have recorded that all of the interviewed farmers applied more fertilizer than the recommended dose with an expectation of higher yield and better disease management (Table 3). Similar phenomena were observed in a study where the farmers of Munshiganj applied 3–4 times higher doses of urea, TSP, and MOP fertilizers than was recommended for a potato field (Choudhury et al., 2006). We observed that this attitude was more frequent among farmers who did not have a high school or college diploma. Due to a lack of proper education and understanding of fertilizers, including their mode of action, most of the farmers in Bangladesh believe that a higher application would benefit them with a higher yield and, thus, more profit.

Consequently, in this survey, 73.6% of farmers reported that an extra amount of TSP and MOP fertilizer could reduce the devastating damage to potatoes by controlling late blight diseases in the North-West and Mid-West regions. The high cost of pesticides or herbicides might be one reason behind the using extra fertilizers to tackle pests and pathogens. Apart from this, potato plants that received an excessive amount of TSP and MOP for a prolonged period experienced an unexpected flowering and physiological maturity compared to plants that received the recommended rate of fertilizer (Figure 3). The result of this survey is consistent with that of Setu et al. (2018), who observed the same effect of TSP and MOP. They reported these fertilizers did not affect potato phenotype, growth parameters, or tuber yields; however, they had a significant impact on days to unexpected flowering, physiological maturity, plant height, leaf area, above and underground dry biomasses, and marketable yield.

In addition to TSP and MOP, we observed that 67.1% of excess urea as a nitrogen source was applied in Munshiganj (Central and Mid-East) compared to Dinajpur (North-West) during potato cultivation. Moreover, a relationship between the percentages of excessive use of urea in the Central and Mid-East region compared with three other regions, namely, the South-East, the Mid-West, and the North-West regions, was studied. Given that the recommended dose of urea application was 250 kg/ha, each region was noted to overuse this fertilizer, especially the Central and Mid-East region. Excessive amounts of urea produce more succulent vegetative parts, leading to increased plant vigor with darker green coloration, which in turn attracts more insects and pests (Singh and Sarkar, 2021). This may act as a catalyst to increase the probability of late blight and boost insect infestation and virus infection.

Apart from the disease infestations, several other obstacles were recorded during potato cultivation, including the absence of suitable germplasm, difficulties in water management, lack of storage facilities, unexpected weather, etc. (Table 4). Similar obstacles were also reported during potato cultivation in Bangladesh by Hoque et al. (2023). In the case of water management, farmers faced obstacles to managing groundwater for irrigation and unexpected rainfall, which directly hampered the yield. Similarly, Sun et al. (2015) found that the frequency of watering at different phases of potato growth and development impacts the production and quality of the crop.

Weeds also pose significant challenges in potato production in Bangladesh through nutrient uptake and playing host to pathogens (Showler and Granberg, 2003; Faruq et al., 2021). Potato yield reduction due to weed competition was extensively documented by Rana et al. (2004) and Attri et al. (2022). The present study observed that S. torvum, P. heterophylla, A. philoxeroides, C. album, and A. viridis are some of the weed species in potato fields. Similarly, Khan et al. (2008) demonstrated that C. album and A. viridis are the main weed species in the potato fields of Bangladesh. Cuda et al. (2002) and Khokon et al. (2017) showed that S. torvum and P. heterophylla are major weeds of the Solanaceae family. Moreover, many insects, including aphids, thrips, whiteflies, and leafhoppers, transmit plant diseases from weeds (Capinera, 2005). Future studies may be needed to assess the potential outcrossing among these weeds and potato.

The current survey aimed to study the agronomic practices of potato cultivation in Bangladesh along with the effect of fertilizer on crop performance, the weed population, and overall challenges during cultivation. The final goal is to understand farmers’ willingness to adopt GE potato. The study reveals a willingness among farmers to adopt genetically engineered (GE) potatoes. However, the acceptance level varies among the study regions. Several studies have shown that the variation in acceptance due to the presence and absence of effective science communication about the benefits (Farid et al., 2020; Abdul Aziz et al., 2022), cultural attitudes, support systems, and local agricultural services (Koralesky et al., 2023). In the future, the reason for the variation in the study regions may be assessed.

The study was conducted in four major potato cultivation areas of Bangladesh. Farmers with more than a decade of experience in potato cultivation were interviewed. The growers’ responses showed that fertilizers are usually applied at higher-than-recommended doses to ensure optimum yield while controlling disease infestation by making the plants vigorous. This overdose was found to correspond to early flowering in the field. Common weed populations were also recorded in the study. Several cultivation challenges, including diseases and pest infestations, were mentioned in response to the questions asked during the survey. A large percentage of farmers opined in favor of the cultivation of GE potato due to their understanding that it will give higher yield and disease resistance. However, the questions also revealed their lack of in-depth knowledge of GE crops. The present study deals with farmers’ agronomic practices and observations about potato cultivation. This can partially fulfill the required baseline data for ERA prior to the introduction of GE potato in Bangladesh.