The history of dyeing dates back to the Indus Valley civilization, approximately 2600–1900 BC, showing the interest of humans in color. Before the 19th century, most of the dyes were natural and curated from fruits, plants, and berries using various techniques (Alegbe and Uthman, 2024). In 1850, the first synthetic dye was produced, and almost 80 different synthetic dyes were produced and used in different sectors by the 1900s (Rather et al., 2023). The great industrial revolution had quickly turned the attention toward synthetic dyes due to their cheaper cost and availability with limited understanding of their long-term effect. Although synthetic dyes are known to be carcinogenic and harmful, at present, they are widely used in food, textile, agricultural, and cosmetic products (Cheng et al., 2022). The presence of synthetic dyes in cosmetic products is a well-known fact. Human skin is a very sensitive organ that loses moisture and elasticity over time. Constant exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light and chemicals can result in faster aging of the skin. Thus, skin care is important to maintain its barrier function (Resende et al., 2021). The synthetic dyes present in cosmetic products have many harmful effects such as skin damage and tumor formation. Heavy metals such as chromium and cadmium are found in cosmetic products like lipsticks, eye shadow, eyeliner, and blush, which can lead to skin allergies, blindness, and even death (Cheng et al., 2022). These carcinogenic compounds are absorbed by the skin and act as neurotoxins, endocrine disruptors, and mutagens, affecting reproductive and overall human health. According to Wijesekara and Xu (2024), several synthetic colorants approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) were found to be carcinogenic. Furthermore, in addition to skin contact, humans are also exposed to synthetic dyes through contaminated water and the food chain. These dyes trigger allergies, asthma, dermatitis, central nervous system disorders, organ dysfunction, and cancer risks. The bioaccumulation of these dyes in fish fatty tissues poses zoonotic threats (Sudarshan et al., 2023). Environmental contamination from these dyes is caused by the discharge of wastewater from various industries, including the textile and cosmetic industries. In the aquatic system, these dyes exhibit carcinogenic and mutagenic properties along with high biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand (Srivastava et al., 2022). These dyes also reduce light penetration in waterways, thus inhibiting microalgae photosynthesis, causing growth inhibition, ecosystem collapse, and toxicity to fish (Krishna Moorthy et al., 2021).

Natural pigments are usually not harmful but are more expensive than the synthetic ones. Lately, there is a growing concern among consumers of skin care products regarding the safety and increasing demand for natural pigments, which are not harmful to the skin (Mary et al., 2024). The advantage of natural pigments is their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, which boost their demand in the market. The market demand for natural pigments has grown to nearly 2.5 billion USD in 2025 and is expected to increase to approximately 55 billion USD by 2027 (Anshi et al., 2024). The need for bio-based, less harmful, and high-performance colorants has driven the demand for natural pigments. The ever-expanding cosmetic industry requires numerous sources of natural pigments (Agarwal et al., 2023). The growing demand for natural pigments in Asia is mainly due to industrialization and increasing population, and the demand for natural pigments is also increasing equally in European and American markets. Carotenoids are one of the pigments most widely used across food, cosmetics, medicine, textiles, beverages, and dietary supplements. The global demand remains high at 23.5% in 2023, and 80%–90% of the carotenoids present in the market are synthetic in nature (Abdelaziz et al., 2023). There are a few microbial-sourced pigments already on the market, such as riboflavin, alpha-carotene, and astaxanthin from Eremothecium gossypii, Bacillus trispora, and Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous, respectively. The extraction of natural pigments from novel sources and their application have gained momentum among researchers at present (Kharkhota et al., 2022).

Pigments derived from microbes are identified as microbial pigments that bear health benefits for humans through essential nutrient supply, and their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities are an added advantage (Di Salvo et al., 2023). Their low cost, durability, sustainability, availability, environment-friendly nature, and numerous sources and applications across various industries are some of the reasons for their high demand (Dufossé, 2019). Microbes produce a range of pigments to adapt to the ecosystem, exhibiting unique characteristics like protection against solar or UV radiation. Even though fungi, microalgae, and yeast produce pigments, bacteria-derived pigments attract the majority of the market due to their abundance and ready availability (Singh et al., 2021). Quinones, melanin, flavin, monascine, carotenoids, phenazines, and violacein are some of the examples of bacterial pigments with provitamin A and antitumor activity and temperature, pH, and photostability (Rather et al., 2023). Serretia mercescens produces the red-colored pigment prodigiosin with anticancer and antimicrobial activity in the presence of glucose and glycine. Dietzia natronolimnaea HS-1 produces the dark red-colored canthaxanthin used in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries using cheese whey as a substrate, while Duganella sp., Janthinobacterium lividum, and Chromobacterium sp. produce the purple-colored violacein pigment that exhibits antitumoral, antioxidant, antiparasitic, and immunomodulatory activities. While red and yellow pigments are abundantly produced by several bacteria, only a few bacteria can produce blue pigments. Corynebacterium insidiosum produces indigoidine, which is blue in color and exhibits protection against oxidative stress. The blue-green color pigment pyocyanin, which helps in reducing inflammation, is produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Venil et al., 2020).

The Green Revolution has hit the cosmetic industry, advocating for health and safety and introducing a term called cosmeceuticals. It offers a new perspective besides beauty and attracts vibrant business ideas. In addition to their antioxidant and antiaging effects, bacterial pigments offer vibrant colors in cosmetic products (Pagels et al., 2022). Sun damage to the skin leads to wrinkles, aging, and even skin cancer. Regular sunblock products available in the market absorb UV rays rather than reflecting them, causing allergies and skin irritation (Mendes-Silva et al., 2020). Carotenoids curated from bacteria have gained attraction due to their anti-UV properties and antioxidant activities, causing less skin damage by reducing free radical production. It can be used as a natural sunscreen replacing chemical ingredients (Terao, 2023). Beta-carotene, lycopene, and astaxanthin are some of the naturally sourced carotenoid pigments. Antiaging creams are one of the most popular skin care products, and consumers are turning toward natural components (Chavda et al., 2023). The study by Kiki (2023) showed that beta-cryptoxanthin from Dunaliella salina and lycopene from Anabaena vaginicola can stimulate hyaluronic acid production, increasing skin hydration. Haematococcus pluvialis produces astaxanthin, which is known to improve skin moisture content, texture, and wrinkles (Liu, 2022). Japanese and Swedish skin care companies have marketed products containing astaxanthin for antiaging solution. Skin whitening creams are also very popular among Asian countries (Pollock et al., 2021). Tyrosinase inhibitors lead to decreased melanin production, catalyzing the pigmentation process. These compounds are being used to treat albinism. Fucoxanthin from Laminaria japonica and astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis are superior antioxidants due to their catalase and superoxide dismutase capabilities. Topical and oral astaxanthin can improve hyperpigmentation problems by stopping melanin production (Araújo et al., 2021). Chemicals like benzene and toluene are used for the vibrant colors of lipsticks and nail polish, which can be replaced by bacterial pigments offering safety and stability (Kalra et al., 2020). Marine microbes are being extensively studied for their cosmetic applications. Phycocyanin from marine algae is being used in eye shadow and eye makeup. Pigments extracted from red microalgae are used in red, purple, and pink lipstick and eye makeup (Yarkent et al., 2020). Microbial pigments from several environmental niches have attracted attention and are being studied for their use in the cosmetic industry. This review intends to explore the classification and biosynthetic pathways of bacterial pigments, highlighting the scope of genetic engineering for the enhanced production of pigments. It explores the use of bacterial pigments in cosmetic products and their advantages. This review also discusses the recent advances and technological innovations in pigment production from different bacterial sources. The challenges, limitations, and future perspectives of the revolutionary role of bacterial pigments in the cosmetic industry are also explored in this study.

Bacterial pigments are characterized as diverse metabolites, which are generated by various microbial species. These pigments impart characteristic colors, but they also play physiological, ecological, and industrial roles. The broad classification of bacterial pigments is mainly based on color, chemical nature, biological function, and solubility (Agarwal et al., 2023).

Refinement of innate pigment-producing bacterial strains could be achieved through biotechnological (genetic engineering) strategies for short-term fermentations, giving maximal yields. This is possible through appropriate screening of the best (hyper) pigment-producing bacterial strains, targeting the genetic matter that acts as a regulator/determinant of the respective bacterial pigments (Orlandi et al., 2022). Genetic engineering of pigment-producing bacterial strains may involve random mutagenesis or specific site-directed mutagenesis to increase the desired pigment production. This strain improvement was attained using microwave (bacterial prodigiosin from S. marcescens) and ultraviolet radiations and chemicals like 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine and ethyl methane sulfonate, to mention a few (Shrestha et al., 2025). Violacein, from the strain Pseudogulbenkiania ferrooxidans, has contributed to the cosmetic industry, with its whole genome data relied upon to better understand its biosynthesis pathway (Mehta et al., 2025). Progressive advances in the field of genetic engineering have paved the way for positive shifts in innate bacterial strains, leading to the production of pigments of interest to researchers/industrialists. To introduce a specific case, the blue pigment-producing S. coelicolor might be manipulated genetically to produce red, brilliant yellow, yellow, and orange pigments, thus being capable of generating inherent and acquired colors (pigments) (Mehta et al., 2025).

Metabolic engineering and microbial bioconversions aid fermentation microbiologists in scaling up the laboratory bioprocesses (Mandal and Majumdar, 2023). Alternative biotechnological preference focused on the augmentation of the pigment-producing strains’ culture medium with applicable stimulators, thereby physically and statistically modeling and optimizing the fermentation pathways for shorter periods and maximum bacterial pigment gains. Pardhan et al. reported the psychrotolerant Paenibacillus sp. BPW19 for the first time, which produced intracellular pink pigment and was isolated from wastewater, belonging to the Paenibacillus genus (Padhan et al., 2021). In a cost-effective (zero-energy) manner, the production of the pigment and its solvent extraction resulted in high pigment gains. In the last half decade, the pigment-producing bacterial strains’ responses to their vicinity and surroundings (microbial communications) are well-studied in terms of quorum sensing and evocation, as a model for the extra production of bacterial pigments at an industrial scale, particularly prodigiosin and violacein pigments, as well as deep blue pigments (Pantoea agglomerans) (Fujikawa and Akimoto, 2011). Gene cloning is another prominent strategy to produce positive clones of the desired pigment producers with a suitable expression vector. The effective application of bacterial pigments as colorants in cosmetics may be restrained due to weak water solubility, poor chemical stability, delicate skin absorption, and minimal bioavailability factors. Over and above that, few biopigments (biocolorants) have high molecular weight, which can hinder their penetration (permeation) into the stratum corneum (the foremost skin layer) (Venil et al., 2013). In light of the current circumstances, it becomes mandatory for an industrialist to appropriately design product delivery systems in an efficient and scientific way that allows easy and safe penetration into the skin. Such highly unstable, less bioavailable, poorly soluble biopigments need advanced tools for systematic delivery and best skin outcomes. In the recent past, bacterial pigments like astaxanthin and carotenoids were capable of defending against the aging processes, preventing skin protein degradation. To further enhance the pigment delivery process, tetraethyl orthosilicate inside lecithin vesicles formed silicified liposomes, also known as silicated phospholipids, which served as the transporters of astaxanthin in cosmetic products (Liu and Nizet, 2009; Moura-Alves et al., 2014). This combination, along with boron nitride—one of the prevailing cosmetic ingredients, gives the best blend for superior adherence to smooth skin and eventually fine-tuning the skin texture (Li et al., 2024). Such astaxanthin liposomes could be incorporated in lipsticks, concealers, and even eye skin care products (Souto et al., 2020). Following microencapsulation, nanoencapsulation, liposomes by spray drying, emulsions by spray drying, lyophilization (freeze-drying) encapsulation, hydrogel encapsulation, and co-crystallization encapsulation are popular delivery systems of bacterial pigments, universally in the case of carotenoids (Bhandari et al., 2022; Díaz-Montes, 2025). Considering economic viability, scalability, and safeness, researchers choose prevalent encapsulation methodologies with utmost care, understanding the characteristics and nature of the bacteria-derived pigments being encapsulated. The unification and implementation of the newest tools and technologies in the fields of protein engineering, systems biology, bioprocess technology for optimized yields, process engineering, high-efficiency methodologies for pigment producers’ cultivation, survival-of-the-fittest screening and genome analyses, and metabolic engineering of pigment-producing bacteria for high yields is anticipated to become all-powerful and scientifically influential (Vieira et al., 2020). Along with the advancements and innovations in biotechnology, synthetic biology, chemistry, and forthcoming metabolic engineering, the production of microbes, particularly bacteria, will enormously amplify the number of biopigments that could be produced within stipulated fermentation periods economically (Acharya et al., 2024).

Although there are several pigment-producing microbes existing in diverse environmental conditions, the production and yield of pigments by bacteria and other microorganisms are highly dependent on factors such as pH, temperature, media constituents/substrate, seasonal climatic variations, location, habitats, and genetic constitution (Numan et al., 2018). Furthermore, the production of bacterial pigments through fermentation is affected by the bioreactors and their design, type of fermentation process, and physicochemical and biological conditions (Venil et al., 2014). The nature of pigments is highly variable, and as a result, their solubility also differs. Therefore, identifying a suitable solvent system for each pigment is essential. Since different bacteria and microbes produce pigments at varying temperatures, analyzing the thermal stability of these pigments is an important criterion that needs to be explored. Although bacterial pigments possess several properties that make them suitable for use in cosmetic products, studies on their toxicity remain limited. For global acceptance and recognition, extensive toxicological evaluations of these pigments are essential (Nainangu et al., 2025). Such studies will also help enhance their industrial demand and applications (Ramesh et al., 2019). All cosmetic pigments, including microbial pigments, fall under the U.S. FDA’s Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) and the Modernization of Cosmetics Regulation Act (MoCRA) (Alshehrei, 2024). According to these acts and regulations, it is mandatory to conduct toxicity testing, heavy metal analysis, microbiological analysis, and particle size evaluation without pre-market approval for cosmetic products. Color additives must receive specific FDA approval before their use in cosmetic products, and the microbial limit is set at 10,000 CFU/g for general topical cosmetics with the complete absence of pathogens like P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and C. albicans. For each pigment batch, it is important to obtain the certificates of analysis from designated officials (Huang et al., 2024a). Furthermore, the product should contain a safety data sheet to provide detailed hazard information in the Globally Harmonized System format. Cosmetic products should also contain a technical specification sheet describing the physical and chemical properties of the pigments, such as color index numbers, chemical structure, solubility, and stability.

The yield of pigment produced by native bacterial strains is often very low; however, this can be enhanced by optimizing the growth conditions of bacteria. Furthermore, this yield can be improved by employing the response surface methodology in combination with artificial neural network like statistical approaches (Venil et al., 2014). Recently, transformations in technology have opened the doors for artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies for their promising use to optimize the fermentation processes (Chong et al., 2024). Short-term goals can be high-throughput strain screening from diverse environments and habitats to identify hyperproducer strains with stable, vibrant hues suitable for product development. Furthermore, exploration of extremophilic conditions to identify novel bacterial species can account for new pigments with peculiar features such as stability, bioactivity, and multifunctionality. In addition to these approaches, metabolic engineering and synthetic biology can enhance the production of bacterial pigments along with enabling the bacteria for the heterologous production of pigments. Metabolic engineering is useful in improving the precursor supply, reducing/eliminating the competing metabolic pathways, and increasing the availability of cofactors. This approach can also expand the diversity and scale of bacterial pigment production by integrating pigment-producing genes from fungi, plants, and animals. Improving bacterial strains using CRISPR/Cas and other genome editing tools can help eliminate undesired genes and enhance strain efficiency for pigment production. The adoption of a circular bioeconomy model for pigment production, emphasizing the valorization of agricultural and food-industry wastes and other low-cost substrates for bacterial pigment fermentation, can make the process more cost-effective and sustainable (Rajendran et al., 2023).

The demand for natural cosmetic products has definitely provided a strong foundation for the utilization of bacteria as a source of natural pigments. The multiple health benefits, along with the desirable properties of bacterial pigments for cosmetic products, have already been reported by several research groups. The range of colors produced by these bacteria is also quite broad. However, most of these reports are from research laboratories and are at the very initial stages of investigation. Furthermore, the yield obtained from these microorganisms is also very low. The standardization of process parameters, strain improvement, and the adoption of a sustainable approach for pigment production may provide a boost for industrial-scale recognition and global acceptance of these pigments. The research and development sector is still in a nascent stage for exploring these pigment-producing bacteria.