AUTHOR=Shah Said Khalid , Su’ud Mazliham Bin Mohd , Khan Aurangzeb , Alam Muhammad Mansoor , Ayaz Muhammad 
  
TITLE=Anatomical study and early diagnosis of dome galls in Cordia Dichotoma using DeepSVM model
  
JOURNAL=Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence
  
VOLUME=Volume 8 - 2025
  
YEAR=2026
  
URL=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1558358
  
DOI=10.3389/frai.2025.1558358
  
ISSN=2624-8212
  
ABSTRACT=IntroductionArtificial intelligence (AI), particularly deep learning (DL), offers automated solutions for early detection of plant diseases to improve crop yield. However, training accurate models on real-field data remains challenging due to over fitting and limited generalization. As observed in prior studies, traditional CNNs often struggle with real-environment variability, and transfer learning can lead to instability in training on domain-specific leaf datasets. This study focuses on detecting dome galls, a disease in Cordia dichotoma, by formulating a binary classification task (healthy vs. diseased leaves) using a custom dataset of 3,900 leaf images collected from real field environments.MethodsInitially, both custom CNNs and transfer learning models were trained and compared. Among them, a modified ResNet-50 architecture showed promising results but suffered from over fitting and unstable convergence. To address this, the final sigmoid activation layer was replaced with a Support Vector Machine (SVM), and L2 regularization was applied to reduce over fitting. This hybrid DeepSVM architecture stabilized training and improved model robustness. Image preprocessing and augmentation techniques were applied to increase variability and prevent over fitting.ResultsThe final model was evaluated on a separate test set of 400 images, and the results remained stable across repeated runs. DeepSVM achieved an accuracy of 94.50% and an F1-score of 94.47%, outperforming other well-known models like VGG-16, InceptionResNetv2, and MobileNet-V2.ConclusionThese results indicate that the proposed DeepSVM approach offers better generalization and training stability than conventional CNN classifiers, potentially aiding in automated disease monitoring for precision agriculture.