In 2021, Srinivasa Rao was given land that was nearly compacted and lifeless for cultivation by a tenant farmer. He realised that the land was infertile, with no biological activity. He recalled how his grandfather brought life to the land through a practice called Navadhanya, borrowed from farmer practices in the dryland regions of the Rayalaseema region.

Navadhanya involves sowing a mix of nine diverse crops to build soil fertility, fix nitrogen, and promote biodiversity (Chinnadurai and Balasubramanian, 2019). This age-old method, passed down through his ancestors, had been sidelined due to the dominance of modern agriculture. As natural manures like cow dung, poultry waste, and sheep manure become increasingly difficult to obtain, Navadhanya cultivation—an accessible and time-tested alternative—is re-emerging as a viable option for farmers.

Building on this ancestral practice, the APCNF programme through Rythu Sadhikara Samstha (RySS) refined and institutionalised it as PMDS—a farmer-led Natural Farming innovation designed to sustain 365-day green cover and restore soil biology. This method has proved beneficial for thousands of farmers aiming to rejuvenate soils. Pre-Monsoon Dry Sowing involves sowing diverse, multi-species seeds into the soil 45–60 days before the onset of the monsoon (Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023b).

Traditionally, sowing is done after the rains start, especially in rural agricultural systems. However, this approach allows seeds to germinate quickly once the rains begin, resulting in faster crop growth, stronger early vigour of the main crop, and stronger early-stage plants.

PMDS crops thrive for 25–40 days, adding over 30 metric tonnes of biomass per field, which improves soil quality, reduces surface heat, and increases moisture retention for subsequent Kharif crops (Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023b). Independent evaluations by IDSAP in collaboration with IIM Ahmedabad reported that PMDS plots showed greater biomass addition, higher root vigour, and improved soil organic carbon compared to conventional fields (Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023b, Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023a).

Srinivasa Rao used 12 kg of various seed varieties for PMDS, including 50 kg of daincha (Sesbania bispinosa) per acre. These varieties included grasses (maize, sorghum), pulses (black gram, green gram), oilseeds (groundnut, castor, marigold), spices (mustard, coriander), leafy vegetables (Amaranthus, spinach, sorrel leaves), and creeping vegetables (ridge gourd, cucumber, pumpkin).

He sowed the PMDS seeds 55 days before the paddy crop. One of the key factors contributing to the success of PMDS was the seed pelletization method adopted by the farmer. While single clay coating has long been a common traditional practice, RySS developed a multi-layer pelletization method using Beejamrutham, Ghanajivamrutham, fine clay, and wood ash. This RySS innovation enhances seed viability, improves uniform germination, and strengthens early seedling vigour under variable rainfall. He applied Beejamrutham to coat the seeds for improved germination and early establishment (Sreenivasa et al., 2009; Mukherjee et al., 2022).

Srinivasa Rao treated seeds with Beejamrutham, a bio-inoculant known for effectively activating the seed microbiome (Sreenivasa et al., 2009). It is composed of cow dung, cow urine, and lime, and is slightly alkaline due to these components.

In the pelletization process, seeds were first treated with Beejamrutham, prepared using 5 kg of fresh desi cow dung, 5 L of desi cow urine, 25 g of lime, and 100 L of water. The treated seeds were then successively coated with fine bank soil, followed by powdered Ghanajivamrutham, and finally wood ash, with water added as required, until seed pellets of approximately three to five times the original seed size were formed. The pelletised seeds were shade-dried before sowing. These pellets effectively retain moisture, remain viable in the soil for up to 3 months, and germinate with minimal rainfall or occasional summer showers.

Pelletised seeds remain viable even under the hot weather conditions prevailing during summer. Minimal early rainfall is sufficient to trigger germination and sustain the crop during the initial growth period (Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023b).

These formulations offer a rich source of nutrients, growth hormones, sugars, and organic acids, thereby supporting microbial growth and diversity. They improve germination rates, protect germinating seeds and seedlings against soil- and seed-borne pathogens, and enhance nodulation in legume crops. Early germination and uniform crop growth can be expected (Sreenivasa et al., 2009; Muhammad et al., 2022).

On the bunds, vegetables were cultivated over 4.5 acres of land. A total of six types of vegetables were grown, including bottle gourd, ridge gourd, bitter gourd, snake gourd, cluster bean, cucumber, okra, and coconut.

In addition, the farm included six types of horticultural crops, comprising 10 varieties of mango, 5 varieties of sapota (chikoo), custard apple, milk fruit (star apple), jamun, and water apple.

PMDS crops thrive for 25–40 days, adding over 30 metric tonnes of total biomass, both above-ground and root biomass, which improves soil structure, enhances organic carbon, reduces surface heat, and increases moisture retention for the subsequent Kharif crop.

Based on 4 years of field practice, Rao reported improved crop cover and reduced risk of crop failure, corroborated by independent evaluations conducted by IDSAP in collaboration with IIM Ahmedabad under the APCNF programme. Mulching, animal grazing, and using biomass as fodder while leaving roots in the soil are all integral benefits of this method. The decomposition of below-ground biomass has enhanced soil structure, increased soil organic carbon, and improved microbial activity through root respiration (Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023b, Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023a). Even conventional chemical farmers in India are using PMDS to improve soil health, thereby reducing synthetic inputs.

PMDS has improved key soil health indicators such as porosity, water percolation, and nutrient availability (Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023b). According to Srinivasa Rao, over 3 years, he also observed better soil structure, richer microbial life, reduced clay compaction, and increased rainwater percolation.

The farm also witnessed the return of birds and a visible increase in earthworms. Earthworms play a vital role in soil health by enhancing mineral weathering, increasing nutrient availability through cation exchange, and promoting organic matter decomposition, though their effects on carbon sequestration remain complex and time-dependent.

A study conducted by APCNF revealed that naturally farmed crops have an average of 46.83 earthworms per square metre, whereas chemically farmed crops have an average of 5.71 earthworms per square metre (Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023b).

India’s traditional rice varieties have been the backbone of food security and cultural heritage for centuries. While new hybrid varieties promise high yields, they come with a cost: increased dependence on chemical fertilisers, water-intensive farming, vulnerability to climate shocks, and altered food quality and nutrient content (Gurava Reddy, 2001; Deb, 2019; MontgomeryBiklé, 2021).

Rao observed visible soil deterioration under hybrid and high-yielding varieties, a trend also documented in APCNF and ICAR assessments comparing conventional and natural farming plots (Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), 2024). High-yielding varieties displaced nearly 85% of traditional landraces after 1960 (Eliazer Nelson et al., 2019).

Srinivasa Rao decided to raise paddy using traditional varieties after learning about their resilience and nutritional benefits. He opted for eight traditional landraces. The characteristics and performance of traditional rice varieties cultivated by the case-study farmer are summarised in Table 1.

There were strong personal reasons behind his selection of these landraces, as he felt that chemically grown paddy was a reason for his father’s cancer. His association with Dr Depal Deb, founder of Basudha Farm, who has conserved over 1,500 landraces in West Bengal and provided scientific insights into their nutritional and ecological value, further strengthened his conviction (Deb, 2019).

Under Natural Farming conditions, the selected landraces exhibited clear differences in phenology and morphology. Most varieties were medium- to long-duration, with strong early establishment and steady vegetative growth. Plants showed robust tillering, deeper root systems, and sturdy culms, contributing to better lodging resistance under variable rainfall conditions. Grain characteristics varied across landraces, including aromatic grains, pigmented husks, and coloured kernels, reflecting their distinct genetic traits. Although yield levels were moderate compared to high-yielding varieties, the landraces demonstrated yield stability under low external input conditions, along with improved resilience to climatic stress and reduced pest incidence, aligning with farmer observations and prior reports on traditional rice varieties (Deb, 2019; Eliazer Nelson et al., 2019).

Landraces carry original microbial taxa that helped plants survive harsh environmental conditions and adapt to terrestrial ecosystems. They also contributed to dispersal across landscapes and provided plant embryos with protection and nourishment (Nelson, 2018; Vannier et al., 2018; Abdelfattah et al., 2023).

Plant microbial inheritance encompasses three stages: plant to seed, seed dormancy, and seed to seedling. Each process governs and influences the next (Vannier et al., 2018; Abdelfattah et al., 2023). Landraces are locally adapted, open-pollinated varieties with high genetic diversity. Seeds play a unique role in this inheritance process by linking plant generations and representing a bottleneck in the continuity of the plant microbiome.

Seeds harbour more than just a plant’s genetic future; they are living capsules that transmit not only genetic material but also entire communities of microorganisms from one plant generation to the next—a phenomenon known as microbial inheritance (Nelson, 2018; Vannier et al., 2018; Abdelfattah et al., 2023). Landrace seed varieties carry these native microbial populations. When seeds germinate, surviving microbes colonise the developing seedling with remarkable precision. Different species migrate to specific plant tissues—some to the leaves, others to the roots—suggesting a highly organised process. These inherited microbes compete and collaborate with soil organisms to establish the seedling’s microbiome, setting the foundation for the plant’s future health (Nelson, 2018; Vannier et al., 2018).

The parent plant initiates this process by sending microbes to developing seeds through two distinct pathways. The primary route involves transfer through the plant’s vascular system, while the secondary, less understood pathway occurs during fertilisation via reproductive cells (Vannier et al., 2018; Abdelfattah et al., 2023).

During seed dormancy, these microbial communities face extreme environmental stress. Their populations drastically decline as seeds dehydrate, creating a natural bottleneck that selects for organisms capable of surviving such conditions. Some microbes enter dormant states, while others maintain minimal metabolic activity. This period shapes the microbial community that will emerge with the next generation (Vannier et al., 2018).

Inherited microbes act as specialised symbionts that assist plants in growth, disease resistance, and stress adaptation. Early evidence that seeds harbour beneficial microorganisms was described in studies on the symbiosis between endophytic fungi of the family Clavicipitaceae and tall fescue Festuca arundinacea (Tsai et al., 1994; Schardl et al., 2004).

For many crops, “landraces” or farmers’ traditional and local varieties are the main sources of seed for smallholder farmers. Srinivasa Rao’s farm demonstrated that the indigenous paddy varieties he adopted withstood both biotic and abiotic stress due to inherited genetic traits.

Studies on traditional crop varieties have shown that seed-associated microbial communities are functionally diverse and include plant growth–promoting rhizobacteria (such as Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Azospirillum spp.), nitrogen-fixing and phosphate-solubilising bacteria, actinomycetes, and endophytic fungi. These microbial groups contribute to multiple plant functions, including improved nutrient acquisition, hormone regulation, disease suppression, and tolerance to abiotic stress such as drought and heat. The functional diversity of these inherited microbial populations is considered a key factor underlying the resilience and adaptive capacity of traditional landraces under low-input and stress-prone environments (Syamsia et al., 2015; Lubna et al., 2018; Nelson, 2018; Vannier et al., 2018; Verma and White, 2018; Simonin et al., 2022; Abdelfattah et al., 2023).

Seed paddy transplantation involves preparing the field, cultivating seedlings in a nursery, and then transplanting them to the main field. Seedlings, usually around 3 weeks (21–25 days) old, are carefully pulled from the nursery, transported to a puddled and levelled field, and planted at a shallow depth with uniform spacing (International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 2017).

Transplanting was performed 10 days after puddling using 25-day-old seedlings at the 3–4 leaf stage to ensure healthy growth. Before transplanting, the nursery beds were well watered to make uprooting easier and avoid root damage. The leaf tips were slightly trimmed to reduce water loss (International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 2017).

For pest control, Neemastram was sprayed every 15 days, while Agniastram was applied every 30 days to prevent stem borer infestation. Neemastram, an organic bio-pesticide, is widely used in Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) and APCNF systems. Neemastram was prepared using 5 kg of neem leaves, 5 kg of fresh cow dung, 5 L of cow urine, and 100 L of water, and allowed to ferment for 24 h before application (Nativus Farms, 2023). Neemastram primarily controls pests such as aphids, leafhoppers, mealybugs, and other soft-bodied insects, providing a natural alternative to chemical pesticides. Its active compound, azadirachtin, is responsible for its pesticidal properties. Unlike chemical pesticides, Neemastram is safe for beneficial insects, including pollinators and natural predators, and enhances soil health by supporting beneficial microbial activity.

Agniastram is a traditional botanical formulation used to manage pests such as stem borers, fruit borers, and other chewing and sucking insects. A stem borer is an insect larva that bores into plant stems to feed on internal tissues, causing damage by disrupting sap flow and leading to wilting, yellowing, and potentially plant death (Times of Agriculture, 2023; Kris Food Forest, 2025).

Agniastram was prepared using 5 kg of neem leaves, 500 g of tobacco, 500 g of green chillies, 250 g of garlic, and 10 L of cow urine. The ingredients were crushed, boiled, fermented, and filtered to obtain a bio-pesticidal solution. It acts as an antifeedant, repels pests, disrupts growth and reproduction cycles, and exhibits mild toxicity to soft-bodied pests (Times of Agriculture, 2023; Kris Food Forest, 2025).

Being biodegradable, both Neemastram and Agniastram leave no harmful chemical residues on crops or in the environment and are safe for beneficial organisms such as pollinators and natural predators. In addition, they are cost-effective and easy to prepare using locally available materials, making them sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic pesticides.

During the early tillering stage, Panchagavya was applied to promote plant growth. Panchagavya is an organic mixture made from five cow-derived products: 3 L of cow milk, 2 L of cow curd, 1 kg of cow ghee, 5 kg of fresh cow dung, and 5 L of cow urine. Each component is referred to as gavya in Sanskrit, and together they are known as Panchagavya (Rawal et al., 2024). In some formulations, a few additional ingredients are added.

Panchagavya improves plant growth and disease resistance, making it a valuable input in organic agriculture (Raghavendra et al., 2014). It offers multiple benefits, including serving as a natural manure and biopesticide. Derived from cow urine and manure, it enhances soil nutrients, increases fertility, and ensures chemical-free food. Cow-based by-products used in its preparation are also environmentally benign and can be used for generating biogas and energy (Dhama et al., 2005; Rawal et al., 2024).

Saptadhanya Kashayam was used twice during the later growth stages to boost crop strength and improve yield quality.

Tube well water was used as the primary irrigation source throughout the crop period to maintain soil moisture. According to Srinivasa Rao, water consumption was reduced by approximately 50% compared to chemically grown paddy. Conventionally grown paddy typically requires continuous irrigation across the crop cycle, whereas naturally farmed fields rely on limited rainfall and supplemental tube well irrigation (Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023a).

During the 120-day crop cycle of the indigenous paddy, irrigation was applied only three to four times on average, resulting in a noticeable reduction in energy consumption compared to conventional fields. Surface irrigation was practised on a flat-bed land configuration.

Irrigation was provided only at critical stages of crop growth, namely:

Water was completely drained fifteen days before harvest to facilitate grain maturity and ease of harvesting.

A rice plant usually produces between 5–20 tillers (Yuan et al., 2024), but the number depends on factors such as variety, nutrient levels, spacing, and planting method. Since panicles grow from tillers, more tillers generally mean more panicles. However, when plants are crowded, they tend to produce fewer tillers and panicles.

On Srinivasa Rao’s farm, plants produced 60–65 tillers (Video testimonial), significantly higher than hybrid varieties raised through conventional methods. Additionally, 25 bags of 75 kg each were harvested, totalling 1.8 tonnes per acre. Retailers in the Guntur district sold the produce at an 80% higher price than conventional rice varieties.

Srinivasa Rao discussed the medicinal and nutritional value of these traditional rice varieties.

Traditional coloured rice varieties are particularly known for their high levels of dietary fibre, starch, flavonoids, phenols, and other beneficial compounds. These compounds are believed to contribute to reducing the incidence of non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, and stroke (Bhattacharyya and Roy, 2018). The nutritional and bioactive properties of selected traditional rice varieties, compiled from published sources, are presented in Table 2.

The Green Revolution in India led to a sharp decline in traditional landraces as government-backed hybrids were introduced through formal seed systems (Deb, 2019). Although hybrids offer higher yields, they depend heavily on chemical fertilisers and water, are more vulnerable to climate change, and often produce lower-quality, less nutritious food (Gurava Reddy, 2001; MontgomeryBiklé, 2021; Debnath et al., 2023).

Traditional varieties are being lost gradually, primarily due to their replacement by high-yielding, genetically uniform modern cultivars (Subbaiah et al., 2022; Debnath et al., 2023). This trend, driven by industrialised agriculture and monoculture practices, contributes to significant genetic erosion. The loss of landraces and wild relatives reduces the crop gene pool’s ability to adapt to pests, diseases, and changing environmental conditions, posing a serious threat to food security (Deb, 2019; Eliazer Nelson et al., 2019; MontgomeryBiklé, 2021).

These traditional varieties showed compatibility with diverse soil types and exhibited natural resistance to pest and insect attacks. The crop remained healthy, featuring stronger stems, more panicles, and weed-free fields—outcomes attributed to Natural Farming practices (Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023a).

A large-scale meta-analysis across 50 plant species identified Cladosporium perangustum, Alternaria spp., Pantoea agglomerans, Pseudomonas viridiflava, and Pseudomonas fluorescens as dominant seed-associated taxa (Simonin et al., 2022). From the perspective of plant fitness and survival, seed endophytes consistently displayed key microbial functions, including phosphorus solubilisation, nitrogen fixation, antibiosis, acetoin secretion, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase activity, production of growth-promoting hormones such as indole acetic acid (IAA), siderophore-mediated iron transport, and suppression of plant pathogens (Syamsia et al., 2015; Lubna et al., 2018; Verma and White, 2018).

Moreover, the genetic diversity preserved in traditional varieties and their wild relatives remains vital for climate resilience. All the rice varieties cultivated by Srinivasa Rao withstood the impact of Cyclone Michaung (December 2023), unlike conventionally grown paddy, highlighting the adaptive strength of landraces (Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023a).

For centuries, farmers have been selecting, saving, and sharing seeds, enriching agricultural biodiversity and strengthening local resilience. Their knowledge and traditional practices have sustained local seed production and storage systems. In most Global South countries, farmers continue to dominate seed production by volume and crop diversity compared to the formal seed sector. On-farm seed production and storage ensure seed availability at planting time and reduce dependence on expensive certified seed (Westengen et al., 2023).

However, the current structure of the food system makes it increasingly difficult for traditional seeds to survive. Consumer choices in India also contribute to this, largely due to limited awareness of the nutritional and ecological value of traditional foods.

Srinivasa Rao sells traditional rice varieties to organic stores and individual customers, earning a 25% premium for residue-free, pesticide-free produce. Yet, market access remains limited, as these products are largely absent from supermarkets and public food programmes.

Rao’s advocacy for local seed exchange mirrors APCNF’s broader framework promoting community seed banks and decentralised conservation of traditional germplasm within self-help group federations (Institute for Development Studies Andhra Pradesh (IDSAP), 2023b).

Public funding for such banks is essential to prevent genetic loss and ensure farmers’ access to traditional seeds. Srinivasa Rao recommends that each village cluster identify one farmer, under the Department of Agriculture, to cultivate traditional varieties for local distribution. Establishing regional conservation centres would further help preserve genetic heritage. He also emphasises the need for collaborative programmes where farmers and scientists work together to share knowledge and improve traditional seed performance.