It is estimated that India, home to nearly one-fifth of the world’s population, will require approximately 529 million tonnes of food grains by 2050 (Jain, 2011). To combat the situation, Indian agriculture has witnessed a tremendous growth in food grain production in last few decades. Having a net cropped area of 180.11 million ha (Mha), India ranks in first four countries in terms of agricultural production and first or second rank in total production of several important crops (Table 1). Recently India claimed to become self-sufficient in food production, however, high export rate of agricultural produces and large population pressure bring down the net food grain availability in the country to significantly below the potential national requirement. Ensuring food security by increased agricultural productivity is constantly challenged by various biotic and abiotic stresses (Ali et al., 2025a, Ali et al., 2025b). Among these, weed infestation poses as a formidable threat, capable of causing substantial yield losses in Indian agriculture, sometimes ranging from 20% to over 80% depending on the crop, weed species, and environmental conditions (Ramesh, 2015; Kaur et al., 2024). Traditional weed management practices in India, primarily manual weeding and backpack spraying, are labor-intensive, time-consuming, and increasingly uneconomical due to rising labor costs and scarcity, particularly during peak seasons (Table 2) (Chaudhary et al., 2023; Kumar et al., 2025). While chemical herbicides offer an efficient alternative, India is yet to embrace the herbicide-tolerant (HT) crop technology that allows non-selective application broad-spectrum herbicides enabling largescale mechanized farming. Moreover, Indian policymakers and stakeholders are still critically concerned about the indiscriminate use of herbicides that can lead to environmental concerns, herbicide resistance evolution in weeds, and potential health hazards in India if HT cultivars are intensively introduced (Parven et al., 2025).

HT crop cultivars have emerged as an important technological innovation worldwide, offering a potential solution to the increasing challenges of weed management (Nath et al., 2024). These cultivars are genetically engineered or developed through conventional breeding methods to survive the application of specific broad-spectrum herbicides, allowing farmers to effectively control a wide range of weeds without harming the crop itself. The primary advantages of HT crops include simplified weed management, reduced labor requirements, improved weed control efficacy, enhanced crop yield stability, and the potential for reduced tillage practices, which can contribute to soil health and carbon sequestration (Green, 2012). Globally, HT crops, particularly those tolerant to glyphosate and glufosinate-AM, have seen widespread adoption, transforming agricultural practices in many major food-producing nations (Ofosu et al., 2023).

The adoption and integration of HT crop technology into Indian agriculture presents a unique set of complexities (Sekhar et al., 2024). India’s agricultural landscape is characterized by diverse agro-climatic zones, predominantly small and marginal farmers, complex socio-economic structures, and a stringent regulatory framework for genetically modified organisms (GMOs). While the potential of HT crops in addressing issues of arable weed pressure, farmer profitability, and resource utilization in India are substantial, their widespread acceptance is contingent upon careful consideration of various factors. These include ensuring environmental safety, preventing the evolution and spread of herbicide-resistant weeds, managing potential socio-economic impacts on rural labor, and establishing robust regulatory and stewardship mechanisms. Moreover, it needs a careful approach to win over resistance from several environmental and social activists.

This paper aims to provide a meaningful overview of the current weed control measures, economic implications of the lack of HT Crops, impact of suspected spurious HT seed available in the market, and current scenario of HT research in Indian agriculture. The present review also highlights the multifaceted challenges associated with sub-optimal use of herbicide doses and associated resistance development. Through synthesizing existing knowledge and highlighting key issues, this analysis seeks to contribute to informed decision-making regarding the future trajectory of HT crop technology in India, ensuring that agricultural advancements serve both productivity goals and long-term ecological and societal well-being.

Traditionally, Indian farmers have managed weeds through cultural practices such as intensive tillage, crop rotation, manual and mechanical weeding, cover cropping, burning, puddling, and waterlogging in rice fields (Rao and Chauhan, 2015; Ghosh et al., 2021; Meena et al., 2025) (Table 3). Use of chemical herbicides in India began in 1937 with sodium arsenite to control wild safflower (Carthamus oxycantha) in Punjab (Mishra et al., 2021). Subsequently, 2,4-D was evaluated in 1946 and officially introduced in 1948 for controlling broadleaf weeds. Systematic research on weed management in India commenced in 1952 with the launch of the All India Coordinated Research Scheme by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), focusing initially on major crops such as rice, wheat, and sugarcane (Das et al., 2012; Mishra et al., 2021). Over the past four decades, these institutions have generated extensive data on weed surveys, shifts in weed flora, crop-weed competition, yield loss assessments, and various weed management strategies (cultural, chemical, and mechanical), along with herbicide residue analysis in food chains and the environment (Das et al., 2012). In the current era of digital farming and big data, leveraging this wealth of information offers significant potential to enhance future weed management strategies in India.

Indian agriculture presents a complex range of opportunities and challenges in the absence of HT crops, which have a significant impact on crop yields, labor costs, herbicide consumption, weed management techniques, and sustainable agricultural practices (Parven et al., 2024). Manual weeding and the application of non-selective herbicides are two pillars of traditional weed management techniques in India that are labor-intensive, time-consuming, and frequently ineffective, particularly in large-scale or mechanized farming systems. The issue is exacerbated by labor shortages during peak farming seasons, which increase production costs and reduce farmer profitability (Nath et al., 2024). Weed infestation is not controlled in a crop/cropping system right away; it drastically lowers productivity and quality in crops like rice, where transplanting is prevalent. Direct-seeded rice (DSR), a conservation agriculture technique that can conserve water and lower greenhouse gas emissions, is also less common due to the absence of HT crops. Compounding the issue, non-HT systems that rely too heavily on a limited selection of herbicides may eventually cause weeds to develop herbicide resistance (Bajwa, 2014; Kaur et al., 2024).

Indian farmers encounter considerable difficulties in efficiently controlling weeds since HT crop options are not readily available (Nath et al., 2024). As a result of ineffective weed management methods, agricultural yields decrease, input prices rise, and environmental pressure increases (Bajwa, 2014; Barman et al., 2014). Because weeds fiercely fight with crops for light, water, and nutrients, yield losses are estimated to be between 25 and 26 per cent during the kharif season and 18 to 25 per cent during the rabi season (Mishra and Choudhary, 2025). This amounts to an annual loss of about ₹92,000 crore (USD 11 billion) (Anonymous, 2024a). Farmers’ finances are further strained by the ₹3,700 to ₹7,900 per acre that they must spend on weed treatment. The necessity of technology-based weed management is shown by a study conducted by the Federation of Seed Industry of India (FSII), which covered 30 districts and seven important crops such as rice, wheat, maize, cotton, sugarcane, soybean, and mustard. The emergence of weeds that are resistant to herbicides and the constant competition for resources make control efforts more costly and challenging (Chinnusamy et al., 2014; Anonymous, 2024b).

Nations like the United States, Canada, Brazil, and China have widely embraced genetically modified (GM) crops that are resistant to herbicides (Cheng et al., 2024). For instance, HT cultivars account for more than 90% of the soybean and maize grown in the USA and Brazil, enabling effective, large-scale weed control with little labor. These nations report higher overall output, less soil disturbance from conservation tillage, and significant cost reductions in weed control. Higher yields and profitability have been greatly enhanced by HT canola in Canada, whereas hybrid rice with HT characteristics has increased efficiency and decreased chemical load in some areas of China (Cheng et al., 2024; Geddes et al., 2022).

India is at a competitive disadvantage in comparison to these countries due to its limited adoption of HT crops (just recently released non-GM HT rice), which results in higher input costs and lost potential yield improvements. Indian farmers are thus losing out on economic opportunities that farmers in other nations are already taking advantage of, in addition to productivity, when they do not have access to HT crops (Verma et al., 2015). The opposition by the anti-GM lobby and the spread of misinformation have been significant factors in the long delay of GM crop commercialization in India. Environmental groups, farmer organizations, and prominent activists have raised public fears about biosafety, ecological harm, and economic dependence on multinational seed companies, contributing to a cautious regulatory environment and public scepticism toward GM technology. Certain scientific reports and opinions are seemingly legit and add fuels to these debates (Lather, 2024; Kuruganti, 2011). Indian scientists and policymakers have noted that such opposition often amplifies unfounded fears and misinformation about GM crops’ safety and impacts, hindering broader acceptance and slowing policy decisions on commercial releases beyond Bt cotton (Jayaraman, 2017; Sreevasthsa, 2025).

The illegal imports and marketing of HT seeds are a significant concern in the absence of licensed HT crops. There is a flourishing black market for HT cotton seeds despite the prohibition on unapproved GM crops, particularly in states that produce a lot of cotton (Balasubramani et al., 2021). The sale of these illicit seeds has reportedly increased significantly, which raises concerns about the uncontrolled use of glyphosate and possible environmental damage. Because such cultivation evades governmental oversight, it is challenging to adequately address health and environmental hazards (Rao et al., 2020). Herbicide-resistant weeds could appear if adequate stewardship isn’t practiced, making weed control more difficult and requiring more chemical herbicides (Monosson, 2015). In addition to undermining the regulatory framework, this illicit trade puts farmers at risk since they might not be aware of the dangers associated with using unlicensed seeds. Without HT crops, reliance on herbicide-only systems may remain low, potentially improving environmental safety as several environmental problems, including deteriorating soil health, water pollution, and decreased biodiversity, have been connected to the overuse of HT crops and glyphosate (Yaduraju, 2021; Anonymous, 2021).

In India, increasing labor shortages and rising wage levels have diminished the economic feasibility of manual weeding (Devi, 2011; ICFA, 2017), leading to a growing reliance on chemical-intensive weed management systems (Figure 1), where pesticide consumption has remained relatively stable at approximately 55–69 metric tonnes annually (GOIStatistical Database, 2024), yet herbicide use has expanded more rapidly than that of insecticides and fungicides, registering an annual growth rate of 6-8% and achieving the fastest growth rate in the recent past.

Herbicide Tolerant (HT) crops, engineered to withstand specific herbicides, offer a potential solution by enabling precise weed control, simplifying management, reducing manual labor needs, enhancing productivity and profitability for farmers, and supporting sustainable practices like reduced tillage (Sekhar et al., 2024; Lee et al., 2014), with studies indicating that HT cotton can significantly cut labor costs for weed control, yielding monetary benefits (Mehta, 2019), while in DSR, where weed management is a major hurdle and manual weeding labor-intensive, HT rice varieties are being explored as an effective option, potentially reducing labor costs by up to 40% (Chaudhary et al., 2023). Non-GM HT varieties like Pusa Basmati 1979, 1985, and CR Dhan 807 already prove viable, and illegal farmer adoption of HT-Bt cotton on 20% of acreage signals desperate demand, particularly for mustard hybrids like DMH-11 to slash edible oil imports, yet widespread adoption hinges on navigating ecological, socio-economic, and regulatory hurdles, including risks of herbicide-resistant “superweeds,” potential environmental and health impacts from increased herbicide use, and socio-economic consequences like rural labor displacement, high seed costs, and seed sovereignty erosion (Ofosu et al., 2023; Sadikiel Mmbando, 2024). Political interference by environmental NGOs (ENGOs) has stalled GM commercialization through misinformation campaigns, imposing staggering costs in lost yields, health impacts, and lives - Bt Brinjal faced a moratorium in February 2010, unresolved after 16 years despite scientific backing, and while GEAC approved GM mustard (DMH-11) in May 2017, government clearance lingers amid debates, shifting focus from brinjal but echoing the same impasse, with public skepticism fueled by unproven fears delaying innovations despite Bt cotton’s proven success since 2002. India needs HT crops selectively, prioritizing stewardship through herbicide rotation, integrated weed management, and smallholder subsidies - favoring non-GM HT for rice and cotton, and GM for mustard and soybean where gaps are acute to enhance profitability without monocultures; regulatory reforms must sideline ENGO misinformation, emphasizing data-driven approvals like GEAC’s, as with labor costs soaring and water woes mounting, rigorously tested HT integration for ecology and equity bolsters resilience, and rejecting them outright forfeits gains, ensuring a nuanced strategy delivers sustainable prosperity for India’s 146 million farmers.

HT cultivars are designed to tolerate specific broad-spectrum herbicides, allowing weeds to be killed while leaving the cultivated crop intact. These crops can be classified into non-transgenic (developed through conventional breeding methods like selection or mutation breeding for resistance traits) and transgenic (genetically engineered). Currently, transgenic or GM HT crops face strict regulatory norms in most countries and are banned for cultivation in many regions. In contrast, non-GM HT crops are widely accepted globally due to fewer regulatory hurdles. In India, the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) permits only GM cotton for cultivation, making it the sole approved GM crop in the country.

Transgenic cotton in India primarily involves two types: “insecticidal” (Bt cotton) that has inbuilt protection against insects, and “herbicide tolerant Bt cotton” (HT-Bt cotton) that has inbuilt protection against glyphosate. While Bt cotton cultivation is legal, HT-Bt cotton remains unauthorized in India despite its adoption in other countries. A 2018 government report by a high-level committee revealed that ~15% of India’s cotton crop cultivated in states like Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat might involve non-regulatory HT-Bt varieties. This highlights the regulatory challenges in controlling unapproved genetically modified crops. Recently, Bayer sought regulatory approval for Bollgard II Roundup Ready Flex (BG-II RRF) in India, a genetically engineered variety combining herbicide tolerance and insect resistance. If approved by the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC), this could formalize the cultivation of HT-Bt cotton, potentially addressing widespread illegal use while introducing stricter regulatory oversight (ISAAA, 2022).

The Government of India recently approved the environmental release of GM mustard hybrid DMH-11 and its parental lines during the 147^th meeting of the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) on October 18, 2022. This approval permitted seed production and testing under existing ICAR guidelines, marking a significant policy shift after a decade-long moratorium on GM crops. Developed by the Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants (CGMCP) at the University of Delhi South Campus, the GM mustard hybrid DMH-11 uses the barnase-barstar system to create two parental lines: Varuna bn 3.6 (MS line) and EH-2 modbs 2.99 (RF line). Importantly, DMH-11 is not classified as an HT crop despite containing the bar gene, which confers resistance to the herbicide phosphinothricin (glufosinate-ammonium). The government clarified that phosphinothricin use is neither permitted nor required in farmers’ fields. Its application is restricted to hybrid seed production plots, where the herbicide ensures purity by eliminating non-hybrid plants during breeding (PIB Delhi, 2023).

Till 2021, HT rice varieties were not available in India, though countries like the U.S. had released varieties such as Liberty Link, Provisia, Clearfield, and Jietian. In 2021, the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) introduced India’s first non-GM herbicide-tolerant ‘RobiNOweed’ Basmati rice varieties - ‘Pusa Basmati 1979’ and ‘Pusa Basmati 1985’, developed by backcrossing popular varieties Pusa 1121 and Pusa 1509 with Robin, incorporating a mutated acetolactate synthase (ALS) gene to enable farmers to spray Imazethapyr 10% SL herbicide for weed control (Table 5). The ICAR-National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack further transferred this gene to four non-basmati varieties - Sahbhagidhan (upland), Naveen (favorable uplands/irrigated), Swarna Sub1, and Pooja (shallow lowlands). The HT line of Sahbhagidhan has been released as ‘CR Dhan 807’ which is the first non-GM HT non-basmati rice released in 2023. Concurrently, the joint venture ‘Paryan’ established by American company RiceTec (via subsidiary Savannah Seeds) and India’s Mahyco developed hybrid rice varieties ‘Sava 134’ and ‘Sava 127’, and wheat varieties ‘Goal’ and ‘Mukut’, all engineered with a mutated ALS gene to tolerate Imazethapyr. Weeds can be destroyed by spraying Imazethapyr 25 days after sowing these rice varieties through DSR and wheat varieties through zero tillage, but the rice and wheat crops will remain completely protected (Table 5).

Further, confined field trials of GM HT crops are underway in India after approvals from the GEAC under the MoEF&CC. For instance, cotton and maize have been approved for such trials by the states of Haryana and Karnataka, and following receipt of No Objection Certificates (NOCs) from these state governments, the GEAC cleared proposals from Rallis India Limited to conduct BRL-1 (first and second year) field trials of two GM stacked cotton hybrids (MLS2154 x MLS4301 x MLS2531, and MLS2154 x MLS4301) and GM stacked maize (MLS10101 x MLS13621). These trials, aimed at evaluating both pest resistance and tolerance to glyphosate herbicide, are expected to advance research on herbicide tolerance in India (ISAAA, 2022).

HT crops are poised to substantially impact weed management practices, particularly by addressing labor shortages and rising agricultural wages, which may drive greater farmer acceptance of herbicide-based solutions. By simplifying weed control through targeted herbicide use, HRCs offer significant potential to streamline agricultural practices if managed judiciously, while also promoting environmental benefits such as no-till farming, which reduces soil erosion and conserves moisture. However, this technology carries risks: it could escalate cultivation costs due to monopolization of the seed-agrochemical market and accelerate the evolution of herbicide-resistant weeds, threatening long-term crop productivity and sustainability. Balancing these advantages and challenges will require careful regulatory oversight and integrated pest management strategies.

Heavy reliance on a single herbicide or herbicides with the same mode of action can drive the evolution of resistance and shift weed populations toward hard-to-manage species. In India, for instance, widespread use of the substituted phenyl urea herbicide isoproturon led to resistance in Phalaris minor, sharply reducing wheat yields in impacted regions (Bhullar et al., 2017) (Table 6). Natural weed populations contain individuals with inherent mechanisms to survive specific herbicides; repeated applications create selection pressure that boosts the proportion of resistant plants over time. The emergence of isoproturon resistance in P. minor in Haryana represented India’s first case of herbicide resistance and the world’s first documented instance of weed resistance to isoproturon. Since then, In India, multiple cases of herbicide resistance have been recorded: (i) Phalaris minor has developed resistance to PSII, ACCase, and ALS inhibitors (Chhokar et al., 2015), (ii) Rumex dentatus shows resistance to metsulfuron (ALS inhibitor) and cross-resistance to mesosulfuron + iodosulfuron, pyroxsulam, and halauxifen + florasulam (Chhokar et al., 2015), (iii) Polypogon monspeliensis is resistant to sulfosulfuron, mesosulfuron, and pyroxasulam, (iv) In soybean, Echinochloa colona and Commelina communis have developed resistance to imazethapyr (ALS inhibitor) (Chander et al., 2019), and (v) In rice, Echinochloa crusgalli and Cyperus difformis have become resistant to Bispyribac-Na (ALS inhibitor). As herbicide-based weed control continues to dominate weed management strategies in India, the prevalence of herbicide-resistant weeds in farmers’ fields poses a serious challenge (Nath et al., 2024). Key strategies to prevent shifts in weed flora and resistance development include herbicide rotation and the use of herbicide mixtures. Thus, a deep understanding of resistance mechanisms, coupled with integrated weed management practices, is essential to delay resistance evolution and sustain herbicide effectiveness.

Despite present issues, India’s herbicide resistance issue is yet less concerning than that of western nations. This is primarily because, in contrast to western nations, India’s agricultural systems use very few herbicides in overall low volume. Lower treatment rates minimize the overall selection pressure for resistance, even if some weed populations across multiple species in the rice-wheat cropping system have become resistant in Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and India. Additionally, the Indian government promotes integrated weed management techniques and the prudent use of herbicides. However, this current advantage may eventually fade away due to growing labor shortages and an increased reliance on herbicides (Bhullar et al., 2017; Verma et al., 2015; Kaur et al., 2024).

Historical account of events shows that India has been cautious and circumspect in approaching to HT technologies while developing its own non-GMO HT crops (Table 7). Recent restrictions on glyphosate use in agriculture, permitting only certified application due to safety concerns (though not entirely banned), while releasing non-GMO HT rice varieties for commercial cultivation in 2024 to address weed pressure are some of the careful steps for example.

Given the compounding population growth rate and increasing food demand, India needs to find out a clear and strategic roadmap for achieving its food production goal. Increasing cost of cultivation using manual labor is no longer a viable solution for a country like India that transitioning from an agriculture-based to an industry and service-leaning country. At this juncture, India needs to embrace the technological advancements in crop cultivation in order to improve production efficiency. It is evident that scaling up HT crop cultivation in India will skyrocket the herbicide uses in Indian agriculture, cause temporary disorientation in human resources involved in agricultural sector and result in several unforeseen sociopolitical issues. It may cause unprecedented consequences on soil, environment, and water streams. Herbicide residues in the soil can affect non-target organisms, and runoff into streams, rivers, and other water bodies can harm aquatic ecosystems and potentially impact drinking water sources. The more efficient weed control offered by HTCs can reduce plant biodiversity in agricultural fields, which in turn affects the insects and other wildlife that rely on those plants for food and habitat. However, several western countries embraced this technological advancement long ago and have been able to stabilize environmental and social issues. India must be prepared to embrace the global growth rate in agricultural sciences while developing it strategic stewardship for tackling the associated consequences of HT upscaling.