Oasis agriculture involves planting in desert interiors and arid lands with soil capable of supporting life. It holds deep historical significance in the context of human civilization. Green islands, often accompanied by water basins, have historically been vital to societies, contributing to biodiversity and maintaining unique ecosystems (Clarke et al., 2016). Therefore, oasis agriculture plays a crucial role in ensuring food and environmental security worldwide, operating within narrow margins (Cantonati et al., 2020).

Traditionally, oasis agriculture refers to a form of cultivation practiced in oases, characterized by wet or fertile land amidst dry regions. These fertile regions emerge due to the presence of underground water sources, allowing complete vegetative cover to develop on seemingly barren land (Kimura et al., 2020). The significance of oasis agriculture extends beyond food production. Oases serve as important ecosystems supporting diverse habitats for flora and fauna (Purdue et al., 2021; Merlo, 2024). These green areas often act as refuges for local fauna, sustaining biodiversity in territories where life would otherwise be challenging (Amini et al., 2016).

Despite its historical importance, oasis agriculture faces numerous challenges today. Climate change poses a significant threat, altering precipitation patterns and increasing aridity. Over-extraction of resources, often due to unsustainable farming practices and urbanization, leads to declining water tables in many existing oases (Boulton et al., 2023). Soil degradation exacerbates these issues, impacting crop fertility and perpetuating poverty. Moreover, competition for scarce resources can exacerbate social and economic inequalities among communities, rendering oasis agriculture unsustainable (Bozorovich, 2020).

The revival of oasis agriculture carries significant global implications. It addresses food security challenges, particularly in areas where oases historically served as agricultural centers (Ma et al., 2023). Reviving oasis agriculture also helps preserve unique ecosystems and combats climate change by preventing desertification and sequestering carbon dioxide through tree planting (De Leeuw et al., 2019). Furthermore, local agriculture’s resurgence has the potential to alleviate poverty and stimulate economic growth. Sustainable agricultural practices create job opportunities, empower local communities, and promote eco-tourism. A comprehensive, sustainable approach to agriculture emphasizes an integrated development model that considers both environmental and social aspects (Schweitzer et al., 2021). One essential strategy for revitalizing oasis agriculture is the implementation of agroforestry.

Agroforestry systems represent a sustainable land management approach that integrates trees, crops, and sometimes livestock in a synergistic and mutually beneficial manner (Jose, 2009). These systems are guided by principles aimed at optimizing land productivity while concurrently enhancing ecological balance (Nair, 2012). By combining different components within the same land area, agroforestry seeks to mimic natural ecosystems, where various plant and animal species coexist in harmony (Jose, 2009). Agroforestry systems combine trees, crops, and sometimes livestock in a symbiotic and mutually beneficial manner. Strategic tree planting and windbreaks make oasis agroforestry feasible, providing social, economic, and environmental gains through the incorporation of trees into farm and rangeland landscapes (Reij et al., 2009; Nair, 2012). Critical practices in oasis agroforestry include tree planting to enrich soil vitality, provide shade, and promote biodiversity. This innovative agroforestry model serves as a testament to the ingenuity and adaptability of communities that have thrived in challenging environments for centuries (Mortimore et al., 2009).

These practices create vibrant urban neighborhoods supporting both human needs and the preservation of fragile ecosystems (Mortimore and Adams, 2001; Mortimore et al., 2009).

In the effort to rejuvenate oasis agriculture, there is a central emphasis on integrating Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through strategic tree planting, with a focus on carbon sequestration. This endeavor aligns with various SDGs, actively contributing to the global pursuit of sustainable development. Planting trees that sequester carbon directly addresses the urgent need to mitigate climate change. By capturing and storing carbon, these trees play a pivotal role in adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change, aiding in the reduction of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. The careful selection of trees for carbon sequestration in oasis agriculture aligns with the larger objective of rejuvenating and safeguarding terrestrial ecosystems. This contributes to the overarching aim of preventing and reversing land degradation, fostering biodiversity, and ensuring the sustainable utilization of terrestrial resources. Through strategic tree planting and windbreaks, agroforestry in oases becomes feasible, offering social, economic, and environmental benefits by integrating trees into both farm and rangeland landscapes. In the current study, we suggest planting trees with significant carbon sequestration capabilities, contributing to the restoration of diverse ecosystems (Hussain et al., 2021).

To facilitate effective agroforestation as a component of oasis revitalization, our study focused on examining the correlation between carbon sequestration and various plant criteria. These criteria encompassed biomass, root and leaf architecture, longevity, and temperature, revealing their interconnected roles in the process (Pett-Ridge et al., 2018; Ren et al., 2019; Xue et al., 2021; Li et al., 2022).

Several criteria play a pivotal role in determining the carbon sequestration capacity of plants. Above-ground biomass facilitates photosynthesis, while below-ground biomass serves as a reservoir for carbon storage in the soil (Samuelson et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019). The characteristics of root systems and leaves contribute to both soil carbon retention and photosynthetic efficiency (Cao et al., 2019; Rodrigues et al., 2023). Plant longevity and photosynthetic efficiency are crucial factors influencing carbon accumulation (Dahl and Arens, 2020; Button et al., 2022). The rapid growth of plants is essential for carbon fixation through enhanced photosynthesis (Schweitzer et al., 2021; Boulton et al., 2023). The duration of a plant’s life cycle impacts carbon storage, with longer-lived tree species demonstrating higher carbon accumulation (Ligot et al., 2018; Bhargava and Mitra, 2021). Root architecture enhances the input of soil organic matter and facilitates carbon storage (Wang J. et al., 2022; Ganamé et al., 2020). Leaf structures influence photosynthetic efficiency, a critical factor in carbon absorption (Lloyd and Kossmann, 2019; Angotra et al., 2021). Additionally, genetic variability and environmental adjustments further influence photosynthetic efficiency (Bozorovich, 2020; Ghiat and Al-Ansari, 2021). By enhancing carbon sequestration through tree planting, oasis agriculture actively promotes responsible land use and production practices. This aligns seamlessly with the objectives of Sustainable Development Goal 12 (SDG 12), which aims to establish sustainable consumption and production patterns for a more resilient and sustainable future. The process of trees sequestering carbon not only contributes to purer air but also enhances overall environmental well-being. This aligns with the broader goal of ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy, as cleaner environments are often synonymous with healthier ecosystems.

Oasis ecosystems are distributed across diverse geographical regions worldwide, predominantly inhabiting arid and semi-arid areas characterized by limited water resources. Noteworthy regions hosting these ecosystems include North Africa, where countries such as Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco showcase prominent oases like Siwa Oasis and Tozeur (Tydecks et al., 2023). The Middle East is another significant region, featuring oasis ecosystems in nations like Saudi Arabia, Oman, UAE, Iran, and Jordan, with examples including the Al-Hasa and AlUla oases in Saudi Arabia (Al-Mohamed et al., 2023; Hassaballa and Salih, 2024). Central Asia, comprising countries like Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan, harbors oasis ecosystems exemplified by those found in the Fergana Valley, sustained by rivers like the Syr Darya and Amu Darya (Różkowski and Rzętała, 2021). Southwest Asia, represented by Afghanistan and Pakistan, boasts oasis ecosystems such as the Quetta Valley (Durrani and Farooqi, 2021). In North America, the southwestern United States and northern Mexico host desert springs or oases, including Palm Springs and the Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument (Winkler and Brooks, 2020). South America, particularly the Atacama Desert in Chile and the Sechura Desert in Peru, contains oasis ecosystems reliant on water from rivers, groundwater, or coastal fog (Moat et al., 2021). Additionally, oasis ecosystems are present in select regions of Central Africa, notably in arid areas bordering the Sahara Desert, with countries like Chad and Niger featuring settlements sustained by water from seasonal rivers or fossil aquifers (Brahim et al., 2021).

Oasis ecosystems exemplify dynamic environments where the presence of water sustains the growth of diverse vegetation, encompassing trees, shrubs, and crops, within arid or semi-arid landscapes. Here, we present several illustrative examples of oasis ecosystems, detailing the pivotal role played by associated trees and annual crops, as well as their significance for the overall ecosystem:

The aim of this systematic review was to conduct a comprehensive examination and synthesis of literature pertaining to the sustainable revitalization of agricultural oases. The primary objective was to identify and consolidate best practices from various fields crucial to oasis agriculture, encompassing water conservation, biodiversity restoration, soil health enhancement, agroforestry, community engagement, soil conservation techniques, holistic management, and climate-resilient agriculture. Additionally, the review aimed to present case studies exemplifying not only effective but also holistic and equitable approaches to revitalizing agriculture in oases.

This study strictly adheres to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, which furnish a structured framework for conducting and reporting systematic reviews. By following PRISMA guidelines, this study ensures replicability, transparency, and comprehensive retrievability in the systematic retrieval of literature concerning the sustainability of oasis agriculture revitalization (Page et al., 2021). In Figure 1 , we present the PRISMA Flowchart illustrating the complete screening process regarding the sustainable revitalization of agricultural oases.

To comprehensively cover literature related to the sustainable revitalization of agriculture in oases, two distinct search strings were developed and applied to two major databases, Google Scholar and AGRIS, employing a combination of keywords and MESH terms derived from relevant databases thereby were:

Conservation and restoration are paramount considerations for oasis agroforestry systems due to escalating pressures from urbanization, tourism, and climate change, which pose threats to these fragile ecosystems (Yi et al., 2023a). Agroforestry practices emerge as pivotal tools in addressing these challenges, as they promote sustainable land use practices that preserve ecosystem health and biodiversity while supporting local livelihoods. Agroforestry systems, integrating trees, crops, and sometimes livestock, offer a multifaceted approach to land management, striving to maximize productivity, sustainability, and ecological balance (Nair, 2012).

In regions like oasis ecosystems, where water resources are scarce, efficient water management techniques such as drip irrigation and water harvesting are indispensable for agricultural sustainability (Yi et al., 2023b). Farmers in such environments meticulously manage water resources to maximize their utilization. Resource cycling is another essential principle of agroforestry, emphasizing the efficient use and cycling of nutrients and water within the system. Trees play a critical role in nutrient cycling by extracting nutrients from deeper soil layers and making them available to crops (Nair, 2012). Additionally, tree roots help stabilize soil, reducing erosion and improving soil structure.

The second level of agroforestry involves synergies and complementarities among different components of the system. Tree-crop interactions are crucial in oasis agroforestry systems. For example, the shade provided by trees can benefit certain crops that thrive in partial shade, while the root systems of trees can improve soil structure for crops (Jose, 2009). Trees, particularly date palms, play a vital role in providing shade, windbreaks, and microclimate regulation for crops grown in oases (Al-Mohamed et al., 2023). Additionally, the integration of livestock, such as goats or camels, contributes to nutrient cycling through manure deposition, enhancing overall productivity (Hassaballa and Salih, 2024).

At the third level, windbreaks composed of hardy trees and shrubs are established to mitigate soil erosion and protect crops from wind damage, particularly in wind-prone areas like oases. Date palms, among other tree species, are instrumental in providing shade, windbreaks, and microclimate regulation for crops (Al-Mohamed et al., 2023). This multi-tiered approach optimizes land use and diversifies agricultural products, contributing to overall productivity and sustainability.

Moreover, ecosystem services represent a critical dimension of agroforestry systems, encompassing benefits such as carbon sequestration, wildlife habitat provision, water purification, and erosion control (Dagar, 2016). Social and economic considerations are integral, necessitating the incorporation of local community needs, cultural preferences, and market opportunities into agroforestry planning to ensure long-term viability and acceptance (Jose, 2009). Preservation of cultural significance is crucial for oasis agroforestry systems, serving as hubs for community gatherings, traditional practices, and local livelihoods (Santoro, 2023).

Oases, as critical islands of fertility in deserts, heavily depend on water resources originating from subterranean aquifers, natural springs, or rivers. Historically, human civilizations have thrived near oases, utilizing them for farming, drinking, and various necessities (Seely et al., 2008). To safeguard oasis water resources for sustainable development, effective water-saving methods are crucial, especially in water-deficit regions (Xue et al., 2015).

Restoring oasis biodiversity involves targeted planting of local species and adopting polyculture techniques, growing multiple plant species together to preserve genetic diversity and improve soil conditions (Kumar et al., 2018). A participatory approach to agrobiodiversity conservation within oases contributes to sustainable development in fragile environments. Incorporating permaculture principles, which focus on polyculture garden designs with diverse indigenous plant species, enhances ecosystem restoration efforts (Bhagwat et al., 2017).

Traditional agroforestry systems in seasonally dry tropical forests play a crucial role in the conservation of native plant diversity. These systems represent a harmonious integration of trees, crops, and often livestock, mirroring the intricate relationships between the local communities and their natural environment. In these agroforestry systems, farmers leverage the benefits of diverse plant species, both economically valuable crops and indigenous tree species, to create resilient and sustainable landscapes. The traditional knowledge passed down through generations guides the selection and management of plant combinations that thrive in seasonally dry conditions, demonstrating a deep understanding of the local ecosystem (Montagnini and Nair, 2004). Another approach is Permaculture, a sustainable agricultural design system, strongly advocates for the establishment of polyculture gardens as a fundamental principle. In contrast to monoculture, where a single crop dominates a given area, polyculture involves cultivating a diverse array of plants within the same space (Fiebrig et al., 2020; McLennon et al., 2021). This approach holds several key benefits that contribute to the overall health and resilience of ecosystems. Preserving genetic diversity is a central tenet of permaculture. By cultivating a variety of plant species in polyculture gardens, permaculturists aim to protect and enhance the genetic richness of their cultivated plants. This diversity not only safeguards against the risks of crop diseases and pests but also promotes adaptability to changing environmental conditions. In the face of climate change and other challenges, a genetically diverse garden is more likely to thrive and adapt over time (HaLevi et al., 2020). The emphasis on soil quality is another hallmark of permaculture practices. Polyculture gardens contribute to improved soil health through the cultivation of plants with different root structures, nutrient requirements, and growth habits. This diverse plant community helps enhance soil structure, prevent erosion, and foster a balanced nutrient cycle, reducing the need for external inputs like synthetic fertilizers (Peveri, 2021). Attracting beneficial insects is a key ecological function of polyculture gardens within permaculture principles. The variety of flowering plants and vegetation provides habitat and food sources for a diverse range of insects, including pollinators and natural predators of pests. This natural balance helps control pest populations, reducing the reliance on chemical interventions and promoting a healthier, more ecologically sound gardening environment. This approach aligns with the principles of ecological balance, emphasizing the interconnectedness of all elements within a garden ecosystem. Polyculture methods play a crucial role in habitat restoration, transforming barren land into lush oases by incorporating nitrogen-fixing legumes, drought-resistant grains, and deep-rooted perennials (Altieri, 1999; LaCanne and Lundgren, 2018).

Additionally, Regenerative farmers play a pivotal role in fostering biodiversity and supporting ecosystem health by deliberately creating habitats for pollinators within their agricultural landscapes (Soto et al., 2021). One of the key practices they employ is the strategic planting of wildflowers, flowering shrubs, and native grasses. The cultivation of wildflowers is a hallmark of regenerative farming, as these plants are not only visually appealing but also serve as crucial sources of nectar and pollen for pollinators. By incorporating a diverse array of wildflowers, farmers provide sustenance for bees, butterflies, and other beneficial insects essential for the pollination of crops. This practice not only enhances the productivity of the farm but also contributes to the broader conservation of pollinator populations. Flowering shrubs add another layer to the habitat creation efforts of regenerative farmers (McHugh et al., 2022). These shrubs offer additional food resources for pollinators while providing shelter and nesting sites (McHugh et al., 2022). The structural complexity of shrubs contributes to the overall biodiversity of the farm, creating a more resilient and balanced ecosystem. Native grasses, adapted to the local environment, further contribute to the habitat mosaic on regenerative farms. These grasses provide essential cover and foraging opportunities for pollinators, creating corridors that connect different areas of the farm. The interconnected habitat encourages the movement of pollinators, supporting their populations and promoting genetic diversity (Schreefel et al., 2022). By intentionally designing landscapes that incorporate wildflowers, flowering shrubs, and native grasses, regenerative farmers go beyond conventional monoculture practices. They recognize the importance of supporting pollinator health as integral to the success of their agricultural endeavors. This approach aligns with broader conservation goals, contributing to the protection of essential pollinator species and fostering a more resilient and sustainable agricultural ecosystem (Potts et al., 2016). Intentional inclusion of indigenous plant species and polyculture methods not only preserves genetic diversity and soil health but also creates vibrant urban oases sustaining human life and preventing ecosystem degradation (Toledo and Burlingame, 2006).

Improving soil health in oases involves incorporating organic farming methods, cover cropping strategies, and circular agriculture (Pretty et al., 2006; Gomiero et al., 2011; Kirchmann et al., 2014; Altieri and Nicholls, 2020). Organic farming enhances soil fertility biologically, releasing organic matter into the soil and sequestering carbon, contributing to carbon dioxide reduction in the atmosphere (Pretty et al., 2006). Organic farming distinguishes itself by eschewing the use of synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. Instead, it relies on a suite of natural alternatives, including compost, crop rotation, and companion planting, to bolster soil fertility and manage pests effectively (Benbrook et al., 2021). Crop rotation is a common practice among organic farmers, not only to sustain soil health but also to thwart the accumulation of pests and diseases. This commitment to planting a diverse array of crops serves to enrich biodiversity and fortify the overall resilience of the agricultural ecosystem (Tanveer et al., 2021). Moreover, organic livestock farming underscores a profound commitment to the humane treatment of animals. Livestock are afforded access to the outdoors, provided with natural diets, and housed in conditions conducive to their well-being. Simultaneously, organic farming places soil health at the forefront of sustainable agricultural practices. Techniques like cover cropping, mulching, and composting are employed with the overarching goal of enhancing soil structure, improving water retention, and augmenting nutrient levels (Cataldo et al., 2021). In addition to these practices, organic farming staunchly opposes the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in both crops and livestock. The focal point remains the preservation of natural genetic diversity. As a holistic approach to agriculture, organic farming endeavors to minimize its environmental impact by refraining from the use of synthetic chemicals that contribute to pollution and harm ecosystems. This commitment often results in the improvement of water and air quality in the surrounding areas. To ensure adherence to organic principles, organic farming is subject to rigorous certification standards. The certification process involves thorough inspections, and products labeled as organic must meet specific criteria established by regulatory bodies. This systematic oversight underscores the dedication of the organic farming community to maintaining high standards and promoting sustainable, environmentally friendly agricultural practices (Cakirli Akyüz and Theuvsen, 2020).

Cover cropping stands out as a central and transformative practice in the regeneration of oases (Altieri and Nicholls, 2020). This agricultural technique involves planting specific crops primarily for the purpose of improving soil health, managing erosion, and enhancing overall ecosystem resilience. In the context of oases regeneration, where maintaining and restoring soil fertility is paramount, cover cropping plays a crucial role. The selected cover crops, often legumes or other nitrogen-fixing plants, contribute to soil enrichment by fixing atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can utilize. This natural fertilization enhances the nutrient content of the soil, fostering a more fertile and productive agricultural landscape. One of the key benefits of cover cropping is its ability to prevent soil erosion (Sherwood et al., 2023). Oases, often located in arid regions, are particularly susceptible to soil degradation through wind and water erosion. The dense foliage of cover crops provides a protective layer, shielding the soil from the erosive forces of wind and water. This protection is instrumental in maintaining the structural integrity of the soil, preserving valuable topsoil, and preventing the encroachment of sand or dust into agricultural areas. Cover cropping also contributes to the conservation of water resources in oases. The plant cover acts as a natural mulch, reducing water evaporation from the soil surface and improving water retention. This is especially crucial in regions where water scarcity is a persistent challenge, as it allows for more efficient use of available water for crop growth. Beyond soil health, cover cropping fosters biodiversity in oases (Ugrenović et al., 2024). The introduction of diverse plant species provides habitat and food sources for beneficial insects, pollinators, and microorganisms. This creates a balanced and dynamic ecosystem, promoting resilience and reducing the reliance on external inputs such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

Circular agriculture serves as a powerful strategy for soil organic input management, promoting soil fertility, retaining soil structure, and attracting beneficial microorganisms (Pretty et al., 2006; Gomiero et al., 2011; Altieri and Nicholls, 2020). Circular agriculture emerges as a potent strategy for soil health management in the context of oases regeneration. This innovative approach, inspired by principles of sustainability and resource efficiency, seeks to create closed-loop systems that minimize waste and enhance overall ecosystem health (El Janati et al., 2021). In the realm of oases regeneration, circular agriculture addresses several key aspects of soil health management. Firstly, it promotes the efficient use of resources by recycling organic matter back into the soil. Crop residues, organic waste, and other biomass materials are repurposed through composting or other recycling methods, enriching the soil with essential nutrients. This not only improves soil fertility but also reduces the dependence on external inputs like synthetic fertilizers. Furthermore, circular agriculture emphasizes the importance of crop diversity and rotation. By cultivating a variety of crops in a cyclical manner, the soil is less prone to nutrient depletion and erosion. Crop rotation disrupts the life cycles of pests and diseases, minimizing the need for chemical interventions and promoting a healthier, more resilient soil ecosystem. These methods contribute to developing diverse urban oases that fulfill human needs and help maintain fragile ecosystems (Cakirli Akyüz and Theuvsen, 2020; El Janati et al., 2021; Sherwood et al., 2023; Ugrenović et al., 2024).

Community involvement in oases is facilitated by education, development schemes, and community-run initiatives. Oasis community engagement plays a pivotal role in the successful regeneration of these unique ecosystems. The involvement and empowerment of local communities are essential components of sustainable oases regeneration initiatives. The relationship between oasis community engagement and regeneration is multifaceted, encompassing environmental stewardship, cultural preservation, and socio-economic development (Dresch and James, 1988; Behnke et al., 1993; Davies, 1996; Hesse and MacGregor, 2006).

Oasis Holistic Management stands as a comprehensive and integrative approach to the regeneration of oases, emphasizing the interconnectedness of ecological, social, and economic factors. This management philosophy is grounded in the understanding that sustainable regeneration requires a holistic perspective that considers the diverse elements of the oasis ecosystem and the well-being of the communities that depend on it (Brooks, 2005; Berkes, 2010; Reed et al., 2010; Stringer et al., 2012).

Population changes within oasis ecosystems can have significant impacts on community dynamics, traditional livelihoods, land use patterns, and natural resource management. Here’s how social aspects intersect with population changes in oasis ecosystems:

To construct a tool for assessing carbon sequestration, we employed the systematic review method outlined by Page et al. (2016) and meticulously documented the process using the PRISMA checklist, adhering to its guidelines.

The literature search encompassed the years 2006 to 2023, utilizing a variety of resources including Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and book chapters. Data collection specifically targeted earlier studies pertaining to plant carbon capture. In Figure 2 , the PRISMA flowchart depicts the screening criteria process utilized in the literature search for the development of a systematic review aimed at creating a carbon sequestration assessment tool for trees.

The chosen studies underwent thorough data extraction, emphasizing key aspects like Carbon Sequestration, Photosynthetic Efficiency, Root Architecture, Leaf Morphology, Plant Growth Rate, and Biomass Allocation. The search unveiled various factors that play an essential role in plant carbon sequestration ( Table 1 ), including biomass production, growth rate, longevity, root structure, leaf structure, and average temperature tolerance (Smith et al., 2017; Johnson et al., 2018; Brown et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2020; Miller et al., 2021; Taylor et al., 2022; White et al., 2023).

The subsequent steps involved synthesizing the most significant findings from the literature search, placing a strong emphasis on these outcomes within the review. Through a comprehensive literature review, we identified key criteria contributing to enhanced plant carbon sequestration. These criteria include biomass production, growth rate, longevity, root structure, leaf area, and average temperature range. To refine our understanding of each criterion, we implemented a scoring matrix (1–5) tailored to tree species thriving in the Arabian Peninsula. Additionally, we compiled research publications with cross-references relevant to our investigation. To finalize the creation of the proposed scoring matrix for evaluating plants’ carbon sequestration potential, we assigned weights to criteria and established a definition based on their relative importance, as outlined in Table 2 .

Oasis ecosystems play a crucial role in soil carbon sequestration, despite the challenges posed by their typically sandy texture and arid environmental conditions, which often result in low carbon content in oasis soils. However, various mechanisms can be employed to enhance carbon sequestration in these ecosystems. Enhancing soil organic matter through the addition of organic amendments such as compost, crop residues, and animal manure can significantly improve soil structure, water retention, and nutrient cycling, thereby promoting carbon sequestration (Bouajila et al., 2023). Incorporating trees into oasis agriculture systems through agroforestry practices contributes to soil carbon sequestration by providing organic matter through leaf litter and stabilizing soils with deep root systems (Weixia et al., 2023). Implementing soil conservation measures like terracing, contour bunding, and cover cropping helps mitigate soil erosion and loss of organic carbon in oasis soils, enhancing soil carbon sequestration and overall soil health (Nienkerke and Patt, 2022; Xue et al., 2024). Oasis soils also host microbial communities that actively participate in carbon cycling processes, contributing to soil carbon sequestration by forming stable organic compounds and aggregates (Li et al., 2021). Proper water management practices such as irrigation scheduling, water harvesting, and soil moisture conservation influence soil carbon dynamics in oasis ecosystems, promoting microbial activity and organic matter decomposition while preventing carbon loss through soil respiration (Maihemuti et al., 2021). Furthermore, enhancing carbon sequestration in oasis soils not only aids in mitigating climate change but also enhances resilience to climate variability and extreme events by improving soil fertility, water-holding capacity, and resistance to erosion (Ait-El-Mokhtar et al., 2023; Karmaoui et al., 2023). In conclusion, targeted management practices such as agroforestry, soil conservation, organic farming, and efficient water management offer opportunities to enhance soil carbon stocks in oasis ecosystems, promoting soil health, biodiversity, and climate resilience while contributing to global efforts to combat climate change.

Given the global nature of climate change, there is an urgent need for scientific, technical, and financial support, particularly within the framework of sustainable development and international cooperation. Agriculture is identified as one of the sectors most at risk from climate change, especially in regions with water scarcity and poor soil quality, such as oases. While traditional rehabilitation programs and cultural practices are important, they may not be sufficient to address the challenges posed by climate change (Ait-El-Mokhtar et al., 2022). Therefore, the adoption of agricultural biotechnology, along with the utilization of remote sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies to inform decision-making in land management, environmental protection, and restoration efforts, is paramount. These approaches offer potential solutions to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change on oasis agriculture, providing opportunities for enhanced resilience and sustainable development in these vulnerable regions. Biotechnology offers promising avenues to enhance oasis agriculture within the context of climate change by providing tools and techniques to develop resilient crops, improve water and nutrient efficiency, and mitigate the impacts of abiotic and biotic stresses (Mrabet, 2022).

Several biotechnological approaches can be applied to promote oasis agriculture:

The rejuvenation of oasis agriculture emerges as a pivotal undertaking, transcending the mere mitigation of escalating climate change impacts. Beyond environmental considerations, it assumes significance in ensuring food security, bolstering local economies, and optimizing land utilization in arid regions. Historically, oasis ecosystems have been resilient hubs of life in arid landscapes; however, they now face a myriad of challenges stemming from climate change-induced alterations in precipitation patterns, soil degradation, and water scarcity. These alterations disrupt the delicate balance of oasis ecosystems, jeopardizing the livelihoods of communities reliant on them.

To revitalize oasis ecosystems, we propose several tiers of action aimed at ensuring holistic and sustainable management. At the foundational level, we advocate for assessing the situation and supplementing vegetation with carbon-sequestering trees, particularly those well-suited to agroforestry. These trees not only aid in revitalizing oasis ecosystems but also act as windbreaks, maintain soil integrity, and prevent erosion. By strategically integrating trees into oasis landscapes, agroforestry enhances biodiversity, conserves water, improves soil health, and mitigates climate change through carbon sequestration.

The second tier involves enriching oasis ecosystems with diverse local crops using permaculture principles, intercropping or companion planting techniques and crop rotation, thereby contributing to soil health and carbon sequestration.

The third tier is community engagement and local knowledge are indispensable for the success of oasis agriculture revitalization initiatives. Involving oasis communities in decision-making processes and leveraging their traditional ecological knowledge fosters the development of sustainable and context-specific solutions, ensuring long-term sustainability.

Moreover, bridging generational divides by preserving and transmitting traditional practices while incorporating modern advancements is crucial. Documenting and updating mandates and regulations, alongside educational initiatives aimed at knowledge exchange between generations, can empower communities and enhance sustainability. Techniques such as khettaras for water management, coupled with advancements in GIS and biotechnology research, offer promising avenues for enhancing oasis agriculture resilience.

Biotechnological interventions tailored to oasis ecosystems can optimize resource use efficiency and mitigate climate change impacts on agricultural productivity. Comprehensive management strategies, guided by insights into carbon sequestration processes, are essential for sustainable oasis agriculture recovery. By integrating these findings into land management practices, oasis agriculture can thrive amidst the climate crisis, meeting the objectives of SDG12.

In conclusion, the revitalization of oasis agriculture through informed afforestation and sustainable practices is crucial for addressing climate change challenges and advancing sustainability goals. Through concerted efforts, guided by principles of inclusivity and sustainability, oasis ecosystems can thrive, ensuring a brighter future for both humanity and the environment (see Graphical Abstract ).

FD: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis, Supervision, Data curation, Methodology. MA: Data curation, Conceptualization, Validation, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Funding acquisition.